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THE 



PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 



OF 



COnON YARN MANIFACTURE 



BY 



WILLIAM E. WINCHESTER 

Instructor in Charge of Cotton Carding and Spinning at the Philadelphia Textile School 



PART I 



" • > ^ r • ' ' ■ 



C -vs. » » • 






PUBLISHED BY THE PHILADELPHIA TEXTILE SCHOOL 

OF THE 

PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM AND SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART 

1902 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Cowte Recsived 

SEP. 27 1902 

Cpw«vb«ht ewtpv 

CLASS <CM(Xa No. 

COPY 8. 



Copyrighted 1902 
By The Philadelphia Textile' School. 



r. 



r 



PRESS OF 

FAHNESTOCK PRINTING CO., 1332-36 CHERRY STREET 

PHILADELPHIA 









A 



PREFACE 

POR a numlDer of years there lias been felt tlie need of a brief 
American treatise on tlie tlieory and practice of cotton 
yarn manufacture. A few excellent books have been 
written on the subject, notably, in German, the "Baumwoll- 
spinerei" of Otto Joliannson, only one volume of wbicli has thus 
far appeared, and in English, Tagg-art's "Cotton Spinning" and 
ISTasmith's Student's "Cotton Spinning." The first of these is 
exceedingly exhaustive :^ scope, the others less so but very 
comprehensive. Xone of them is American nor is there any bool^ 
on the market that satisfactori]y meets the demands of the 
American textile school student. The subject is undoubtedly so 
broad that thoroughly to cover it volumes must be written. An 
elementary text-book, however, should not be too exhaustive, 
but should rather serve as a sort of skeleton to which much may 
be added from time to time. The little book here presented aims 
to supply in some measure the long-felt want. The writer has 
endeavored to set forth briefly the important underlying princi- 
ples of yarn manufacture, together with descriptions of the 
machines used, treating no subject exhaustively but with ample 
scope for the purpose of early study. He has dealt with American 
machines almost entirel^^ and has tried to treat the subject from 
the point of view of American practice. While the book is 
primarily intended to be used as a basis for instruction and 
lectures at the Philadelphia Textile School, it is hoped that all 
students beginning the study of cotton j^arn manufacture may be 
able to obtain some little profit from its pages. 

W. E. WINCHESTER. 

Philadelphia, July, 1902. 



PART I 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 
Varieties and Classification of Cottons 

CHAPTER II 
Cotton Ginning and Baling . 



CHAPTER III 
Preparatory Processes and Machines . . . . ii 

CHAPTER IV 
Carding 49 

CHAPTER V 
Drawing 86 



CHAPTER I 



VARIETIES AND CLASSIFICATION 
OF COTTONS 

THE attempt to classify cotton has been difficult and not altogether 
successful. The botanical types are comparatively few, and cover 
a much broader area than the varieties as classified agriculturally 
and commercially. The aim here will be not to give exhaustive technical 
descriptions of the botanical species, but merely to mention the names of 
the more important varieties of the genus Gossyphmi, to which cotton 
belongs, and to devote most of our attention to the commercial names of 
the various cottons, together with the characteristics and uses of each. 

Probably the most important botanical species are Gossypunn barba- 
dense, G. herbaceum, G. arboremn and G. braziliense. The adjectives used 
to distinguish the classes have many synonyms, and even expert opinions 
differ widely as to the correct classification. The promiscuous mixing of 
many species, which has gone on for hundreds of years, and the intro- 
duction of one species into a new territory, have only complicated the 
problem. The practical names in common use as applied to cottons are 
not difficult to master, however, and the attempt will be made to set them 
forth as clearly as possible, together with brief descriptions. The most 
common names are Sea Island, Egyptian, American, Peruvian, Indian 
and Brazilian. 

SEA ISLAND COTTON 

Sea Island cotton is by far the best cotton grown, and belongs to the 
barbadense variet3^ *' It is a native of the islands off the coast of South 
Carolina, Georgia and Florida, the Lesser Antilles and probabl}^ of San 
Salvador, the Bahamas, • Guadaloupe, Barbadoes and other islands 
between 12° and 26° north latitude." It is now most extensively culti- 



2 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

vated on the mainland near the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and 
Florida, South Carolina producing the best. The fibre is soft, fine and 
silky; the diameter small, and the staple long. Its average length is about 
1.7 inches, and its diameter about .000635. Hence it is adapted to the 
verj^ best and finest qualities of yarn. It is commonly spun as fine as 
number 400, but seldom coarser than 80, except for an especially high 
class of work. In the manufacture of lace and sewing thread it is very 
extensively used. Cotton has a convolute form or natural twist, which 
enables the fibres to cling closely to each other after' the operation of 
twisting. In Sea Island cotton the convolutions will be found to be par- 
ticularly regular. The amount of lint, the name given to the good cotton 
fibre after passing through the gin, is less in Sea Island cotton than in 
any other variety. The yield is also comparatively small, but the market 
pi ice is sufficiently high to warrant production wherever possible. While 
Sea Island cotton has been introduced into Peru, Brazil, Egypt and other 
places, its cultivation there has not been successful ; even where fairly so 
the cotton produced has been inferior to the genuine Sea Island. 

EGYPTIAN COTTON 

Egyptian cotton is classified as Brown Egyptian and as White 
Egyptian. There are three varieties of Brown Egyptian, namely : 
Mitafifi, Ashmouni and Bamia. The name given to the first Egyptian 
cotton introduced into Europe was Mako, or Mako Jumel, and it is known 
to some extent by that name even at present. The original variety has, 
however, experienced many changes, among others that of color, becom- 
ing brown from white. The changed variety is now known as Ashmouni, 
from the Valley of the Ashmouni River, where the change was first noticed. 

Mitafifi is the most extensively cultivated, and reall)^ commands the 
market. It is of a rich dark brown color, long in staple, strong and soft. 
The percentage of lint is greater than in the other Egyptian varieties, 30 
per cent, being about the average. 

Bamia ranks next to Mitafifi in regard to extent of cultivation. It 
is inferior to it, however, in length of staple, strength and hardiness. It 
is light brown in color. 

Ashmouni was, until recently, more extensively cultivated than 
Mitafifi, but has now fallen to third place, and the production continues 
to decrease. Its staple is a little over an inch in length, and its color is a 
light brown. 



VARIETIES OF COTTONS 3 

Of White Egyptian there are two varieties. One, Gallini, a kind of 
Sea Island, was by far the best class of Egyptian cotton. The quality 
deteriorated and has practically disappeared. The other, Abbasi, 
resembles Mitafifi in all its characteristics except color. "The lint is of 
a beautiful white color, fine, silky, very long, though not so strong as 
Mitafifi, and the first two pickings command the highest prices in the 
market." 

All Egyptian cotton is coarser than Sea Island, having an average 
diameter of about .000745 inch. It has the propert}- of giving goods 
in w^hich it is used a smooth, lustrous appearance, and is capable of giving 
cloth a soft finish resembling silk. The average length of staple is i }i 
inches, although this cotton contains a higher percentage of short fibre 
than any other kind. It is commonl}- mixed with the higher grades of 
American cotton. Number 130's yarn can be spun from Brown Egyptian. 
White Egyptian is seldom spun finer than 70' s. 

AMERICAN COTTON 

Most of the cotton produced in the world comes under the head of 
American cotton. It controls the price in the w^orld's markets. The 
broadest and most important classes of American cotton are New Orleans, 
Texas, Uplands and Mobile. 

New Orleans cotton derives its name frohi the port whence it is 
shipped. It is raised in the low alluvial soils of the Delta country in 
Louisiana and Mississippi. It is the best American cotton, is white in 
color, soft and pliable, as w^ell as quite strong; and the qualit}', owing to 
the careful cultivation, is very uniform. It is spun into yarn as fine as 
No. 60. 

Uplands cotton is the most extensivelj^ raised of an}^ variety. Its 
region is the highlands of Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama and parts 
of Arkansas and Tennessee. It is a ver}' desirable cotton, being soft and 
elastic, averaging not quite one inch in length of staple, but not quite as 
strong as Orleans. It is used for all purposes to spin coarse and medium 
numbers, seldom being spun finer than No. 50. Owing to the immense 
production of this sort of cotton, it is the standard to which all other 
kinds are referred in the cotton markets of New York and Liverpool. * 

Texas cotton is a good variety, having a staple of an inch average 
length. It is not as strong as Orleans, nor has it such a clear color, being 



4 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURER 

tinged with brown. The diameter is about .000758 inch, practically the 
same as Orleans. It can be spun as fine as 60' s with good success. 

Mobile cotton, raised in Alabama, is the least desirable American 
variety. Its length is about "/?> inch ; it is spun as fine as 40's or 45 's, 
but for finer numbers does not give good results. 

There is an infinite number of agricultural varieties, which, of course, 
come under the four broad classes just outlined. Most of their names 
refer to the discoverer of the class of cotton or the producer. Some special 
varieties are carefully cultivated, and are widely known by special names. 
Of these Peeler cotton is probably one of the most widely cultivated. It 
is a soft, white cotton, with a very strong and silky staple, averaging lyi 
inches in length. The fibre is fine, and lends itself admirably to the 
process of combing. It is used widely to make hosiery yarn. It is spun 
as fine as 70' s, seldom finer. 

Allen seed is another special variety, being grown most in the low 
moist regions of Mississippi. The fibre is long, fine and silky, averaging 
over iy\ inches in length. 

Another variety. Cook, much resembles Allen, and is raised on low, 
moist ground. All the long staple varieties are grown with most success 
on the low, moist lands, the shorter staples in the uplands, and almost 
entirely north of 32° latitude. In short staples the percentage of lint 
exceeds that in the long staple. Some short staples have 34 per cent, of 
lint, while nearly all the 'long and medium staples produce less than 30 
per cent, of lint. 

PERUVIAN COTTON 

There are three classes of cotton grown in Peru : Sea Island, Rough 
and Smooth Peruvian. The Sea Island grown there is of a fairly good 
quality, but small in quantity. 

The rough Peruvian, known as Gossypmm barbademe Peruviamim, 
is a rough, harsh, hairy cotton. Its length of staple is about i^ inches. 
It is used largely in the United States to mix with wool. It gives a better 
lustre and finish to goods, prevents shrinking when mixed with wool, and 
is consequently much used in the manufacture of hosiery. It is not 
spfln to fine numbers. When used alone it can be spun to 70' s. 

Smooth Peruvian differs from Rough mainly in the respect implied 
in the name. When a fine quality of yarn is desired, it is often mixed 
with American. 



VARIETIES OF COTTONS 5 

INDIAN COTTON 

Next to the United States, India produces the greatest amount of 
cotton. Its product is used entirely in India, the East and Great Britain. 
There are several varieties, of which Hingunghat is the best. Broach 
cotton is a good cotton, about yi inch in length of staple. It, of course, 
cannot be spun to fine numbers. 

Dharwar and Oomra cottons have a length of .8 and .9 inches, 
respectively, scarcely as good as Broach. Dhollera cotton is the most 
widely known Indian cotton. It resembles Dharwar, but is yf inch 
in length. 

BRAZILIAN COTTON 

In Brazil, G. Peruvianuin is grown, as well as other varieties, of 
which Pernambuco is the best. It has very regular convolutions, is i^ 
inches in length, and rather harsh. Ceara cotton resembles Pernambuco 
in most respects, except color, being a dull white, while Pernambuco is a 
light gold. Maranhams, the other principal variety, is not as good as 
Pernambuco, and is % of an inch shorter. All these cottons are exported 
to Europe, mainly to England. 

Cotton is also raised in Russia, China, Japan, Korea, the East and 
West Indies, Mexico, The Levant and the South Sea Islands, as well as 
some parts of Africa, outside of Egypt. In all of these places the 
product is locally consumed. 



CHAPTER II 



COTTON GINNING AND BALING 

After cotton has been picked, its first mechanical treatment is 
received from a machine known as a cotton gin. The function of this 
machine is to remove from the good cotton all the seeds. There are two 
types of cotton gin, the roller gin and the saw gin. The roller gin is 
constructed on a very old principle, in use for hundreds of years. The 




Fig. I. 



saw gin is the well-known invention of Eli Whitney. While these 
machines are used in the vicinity of cotton fields, and in no case within 
cotton mills, nevertheless a brief description of them at this point may 
not be out of place, since many of the impurities found in cotton when 
received at a mill are due to faulty ginning. 

(6) 



COTTON GINNING AND BALING 7 

From very early time the roller gin in some form has been used in 
India. In its simplest shape it consisted of a flat stone and wooden 
roller. The seed cotton was placed on the stone, and the wooden roller, 
moved by the foot, was employed to press the seeds out. Of course the 
roller gin has been vastly improved, but it is doubtful if the quality of 
the product surpasses that of the old Hindoos. The modern type of 
roller gin, as made by Piatt Bros. & Co., is shown in Fig. i. The 
cotton is fed on a feed table to a leather roller G. A feeder bar C is 
given a horizontal reciprocating motion by means of a crank, and thus 




Fig. 2. 



moves new seed cotton up to the leather roller G at each of its forward 
motions. The leather roller has a rough surface, and readily catches the 
cotton, carrying it forward. Very near the leather roller is placed a thin 
steel plate, I, known as the "doctor knife." This plate ordinarily 
occupies a vertical position, and is tangent to the leather roller's circum- 
ference. It is capable of being adjusted, and is set near enough to the 
leather roller to prevent the forward passage of seeds. The leather roller 
makes about 150 revolutions per minute. This speed w^ould naturally 
tend to pull some of the fibres away from the seeds which are detained b}^ 
the doctor knife. The fibres, however, cling very tenaciously, and 



8 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

further means is provided for liberating them. Two beater blades, F^ and 
and F^, placed directly behind the doctor knife, are given a rapid vertical 
reciprocating motion. Their upper ends are blunt, and by continually 
beating against the seeds, they separate them from the fibres, which pass 
on unhindered. The seeds fall to the floor, through the grids A, in the 
bottom of the feed table. The lint cotton is stripped from the leather 
roller by a stripping board, and falls to the floor in a continuous sheet. 

The plan of the saw gin is distinctly different. A view of one is 
shown in Fig. 2. The seed cotton is placed in a hopper, one side of 
which is made of bars or grids. Through the spaces between these, thin 
steel discs with notched peripheries, resembling circular saws, protrude. 
Very little space is left between the bars and the saws. By the rapid 
revolution of the saws, the cotton is grasped, and forcibly separated from 
the seeds, which cannot pass through the spaces. The seeds fall through 
grids at the bottom of the hopper. The lint cotton is stripped from the 
saws by a cylindrical brush. The centrifugal force is so great that the 
light lint is blown from 20 to 60 feet from the gin. A mechanical draft 
is sometimes established, so that the cotton is conveyed to revolving cages, 
where it is condensed into a continuous sheet. The gin shown is provided 
with these condensing cages. 

There has been, and is, much discussion in regard to the relative 
merits of the two classes of cotton gin. The defects of both are, however, 
much the same. Neither succeeds in removing all the leaf, dirt, and 
immature seeds, knowm as motes. Both types form **neps," which is the 
name given to tightly rolled balls of fibre. Saw ginned cotton is 
probably more free from trash and dirt than that which is roller ginned. 
The saw gin is also better adapted to cotton in which the lint clings most 
tightl}" to the seeds, roller ginning being successfully used only where 
cotton has naked seeds. On common Uplands cotton seeds, the down 
causes them to adhere to each other, and hence the saw treatment is 
necessary. The saw gin, through its rough, forcible action, does in 
certain cases, especially if speeded too high, injure the fibres. This is 
naturally more applicable to the longer staples. Sea Island and the other 
better classes are worked on a roller gin. 

After cotton has been freed of seeds, the lint is made into bales. 
The standard size of an American bale is 54 x 27 inches and is supposed 
to contain 500 pounds. There is, however, a very wide range of variation 
in length, width, thickness and density. They are tightly compressed by 



COTTOX GINNING AND BALING 9 

a sudden pressure of a mighty compress. The mass of cotton which 
was 27 inches high, is pressed into a space of 7 or 8 inches. Later when 
the pressure is removed, it expands. The densit}^ of American bales is 
never higher than 35 pounds per cubic foot, and often runs as low as 25 
pounds. The bales are covered with loose, easih^ torn, jute bagging, and 
are bound by six iron hoops. The bales are by no means fitted to with- 
stand the rough handling which they receive. As a result thej^ are often 
in a very bad condition when received at mills at a great distance from 
where they are made. It is generally admitted that "the American bale 
is the clumsiest, dirtiest, most expensive and most wasteful package in 
which cotton, or, in fact, any commodity of like value, is anywhere put 
up." To overcome its bad feature, cylindrical bales of two types have 
been invented. In one the sheet of cotton delivered by the condenser of 
a cotton gin is fed between two heavy, powerful condensing rolls. These 
press nearh^ all the air out of the cotton, giving it a density of more than 
35 pounds to the cubic foot, as well as making the bale of a uniform size. 
The cotton is wound on a spool and can be convenientl}' unrolled at the 
mill. The bale is covered with cotton cloth with no metal ties. It can 
be as convenienth^ sampled as the ordinary bale; it cannot burn, and is in 
very man}- respects much superior. In the second tj^pe the strand of 
cotton is coiled up and submitted to a powerful endwise pressure. 

All other kinds of cotton than American, except some Brazilian, are 
much more satisfactorily baled. Egyptian bales are heavier than Ameri- 
can bales, having an average weight of over 700 pounds. They are about 
50 inches long, 31 inches wide, and 31 inches thick. The covering of 
these bales, like that from all countries except the United States, is a 
strong, light canvas. About 11 ties are used. Indian bales are a little 
smaller than American bales, and are more densely packed. Their 
average weight is a little less than 400 pounds. About 13 ties are used. 




Ainerioan bale. 



Egyptian bale. 




Indian bale. 



Turkish bale. 



Fig. 3- 



CHAPTER III 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 

BALE BREAKING. 

In whatever form of bale cotton is received at a mili, there is the 
necessity of tearing apart a very tightl}^ compressed mass. The bales 
are usually stored in a house very near the portion of the mill where they 
are to receive their first treatment. In this part of the mill the bagging 
and hoops are removed from the bales. There are two methods 
employed in tearing the bales apart, one by hand, the other by machine. 
In either case, how^ever, there must be considerable handling. In one 
case the cotton is pulled out and scattered through bins provided for it, 
being given some mixing by the intermingling of cotton from different 
bales. In the other case, a machine called a bale breaker is used. In 
this country the hand process is very largely adopted, and it is 
undoubtedly very satisfactory, especially where loosely baled American 
cotton is used. There are obviously many advantages to be gained from 
the employment of bale breakers and their accompanying mixing 
appliances. The more tightly compact the bale, the greater must these 
appear. 

The bale breaker is an exceedingly simple machine. A sectional 
view is shown in Fig. 4. It consists essentially of four sets of rollers 
and a feeding arrangement. Large hunks of cotton torn from the bale 
by hand are thrown upon a moving lattice apron. The cotton is thereby 
carried along to the back set of rollers. These are placed one above the 
other, and made to revolve at a fixed speed. The rollers have long blunt 
teeth, suited to penetrate the cotton and to aid later in the pulling apart. 
The rollers are made up of narrow discs fitted upon a shaft, so that any 
breakages can be readily repaired. After passing through the first set of 
rollers, the cotton is acted upon by the second set. Of these the lower is 
fluted lengthwise, while the upper resembles the back rollers. As they 

(II) 



12 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



revolve at a greater speed than the first set, the lumps of cotton will at 
this point receive some pulling apart. The third set of rollers is similarly 
constructed, while the fourth set, or front rolls, are both longitudinally 
fluted. The speed of each succeeding set is accelerated, so that the surface 
covered b}" the front rolls is about 30 times that covered bj^ the back. 
The effect upon the cotton must then be a loosening up to a very large 
extent of the compact mass. All the top rolls are held in contact with 




Fig. 4. 

the bottom ones by strong springs ; yet these are sufficiently sensitive to 
contract upon the passage through of any hard large foreign substance, 
of which cotton bales are not always free. Some bale breakers have two 
or three, instead of four sets of rolls, and others have a beater attach- 
ment similar to beaters used in the machines soon to be described. The 
production of all types is large, 70,000 or. 80,000 pounds being a possible 
output for a week. 

The great value of bale breakers lies in the uniformity of the break- 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



13 



ing up of the cotton, and the speed and facility with which the work can be 
done. Attached to bale breakers are oftentimes distributing or mixing 
lattices. The cotton falls from the front rolls of the breaker on a moving 
lattice apron. It is then carried to an inclined double lattice, which 
conveys it up to other horizontal lattices by which it can be carried to any 
part of the room desired and dropped into its proper bin. A view of 
these mixing devices is shown in Fig. 5, and will be easil}' understood. 




Fig. 5. 



OPENERS. 

The cotton has now arrived at the stage where it is to be fed to the 
first of the machines, known in colloquial cotton-mill parlance as 
"pickers." These machines, also known as the opener, breaker lapper, 
intermediate lapper and finisher lapper, together with bale breakers, are 
placed in a room or rooms separated by fire walls from -the cotton mill proper. 
The construction of the machines is conducive to fires, and cotton in a loose 
state burns most easily. It is quite common in modern mills to use a 
separate building for the pickers. This would be known as the ' ' picker 
house," while in other cases "picker room" answers for a name. One, 
two or three floors are variously used for the machines in question ; but 
a discussion and views of different arrangements may more suitably follow 
a description of the processes and the machines. The first machine in 
the list is called an opener. Its function is described in general terms by 
its very name. The object of the opening of the cotton is to remove 
dirt, seed and foreign substances, all of which exist in abundance even 
after ginning. A view in perspective of an opener is given in Fig. 6, and 
a sectional view of one manufactured by the Kitson Machine Co. in Fig. 



14 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



7. All Openers are at present provided with a hopper feed. The 
hoppers are made large; most of them will hold nearly a bale of cotton. 
The shape is well shown in the drawing. In the sectional view of an 
opener fitted with an automatic hopper feed, A represents the hopper 
into which the cotton is thrown by hand. To insure the carrying into 
the machine of an uniform amount of cotton, it is advisable always to 
keep the cotton in the hopper at nearly the same height. The regularity 
of feeding is rather an important point to be emphasized from the very 
beginning. Various mechanical arrangements are applied to machines to 




Fig. 6. 



facilitate this, but much depends upon the carefulness of the machine 
tender. At the bottom of the hopper is a moving lattice apron B. This 
consists of thin wooden slats attached to strips of canvas. The lattice is 
endless, and runs around the rollers a, d in the direction shown by the 
arrow. The cotton is by it moved forward to another lattice whose slats 
are fitted with short spikes. This lifting lattice carries the cotton to the 
top of the machine. At the top of the hopper, a short distance from the 
lifting lattice, is an endless leather apron D, which receives its motion as 
shown from the rollers d'^ and d^ around which it is stretched. One of 
the rollers, ^\ is a pin roller, having about six rows of pins in its peri- 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



15 



pher3^ The pins are allowed to pass through slots in the leather apron 
D. Their function is to . prevent the onward passage of large lumps of 
cotton, enabling the amount fed with the machine to be made somewhat 
uniform. The lumps which engage with these pins will receive some 
little pulling apart, and will be forced back into the hopper. The function 
of the leather apron is to strip the cotton from the pins. As the roller 
d^ revolves, the pins recede within the apron ; the cotton cannot pass 
through the small holes, through which the pins recede, and must fall 
back into the hopper. In some cases the space between the two aprons 




Fig. 7. 



can be changed by moving the position of the rolls d^ and d"- . On some 
makes of machines there is an arrangement for changing the speed of 
the lifting lattice; in this manner regulation of the feeding is obtained. 
The leather apron and pin roller are not the only types of apparatus 
adopted for regulating the feed. All devices have the same function, 
however, and work in a much similar manner. The one explained is as 
simple as an}', and performs the work as well. 

The cotton which has been allowed to pass the pin roller is carried 
around by the lifting lattice until it comes within the action of a doffer 
E. As its name implies, the duty of E is to remove all the cotton from 



i6 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



the lattice. The doffer is a cj^indrical drum, having straps carrying strips 
of leather extending lengthwise of its surface. This revolves at a high 
speed, about 800 revolutions per minute, pulls the cotton away from the 
lattice, and beats it against grid bars'H. Through the spaces, heavy 
impurities, seeds, dirt, etc., wnll fall into a receptacle F. The throwing 
of the cotton against the grids, as well as the high speed at which the 




Fig. 8. 




Fig. 9. 



doffer beats the cotton from the lattice, tend to open the cotton sufficiently 
to free much of the useless dirt. Besides the grid bars H, there are at 
the bottom of the lifting lattice grids G, through which the impurities may 
fall. After leaving the action of the doffer, the cotton falls down an 
inclined metal plate upon a feeding lattice I. This lattice moves continu- 
ally forward, carrying the cotton first beneath a corrugated wooden 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



17 



pressing roller, whose dutj^ is to compress the cotton into a semblance of 
sheet, and next between two fluted feed rolls. These rolls, similarly to 
all feed rolls, are longitudinally fluted so as the better to grip the cotton, 
and to hold it firmly while feeding to the next organ, whatever that organ 
may be. In the machine under discussion the cotton is by means of the 
feed rolls mentioned, fed to a beater. The type of beater may vary, but 
the duty is the same, namely: to beat the cotton away from the feed roll 
in small lumps, and to throw it forcibly against grid bars. A style of 
beater commonly used consists of three arms cast upon a shaft. There 
are commonly four sets of these arms upon a shaft, which stretches the 
width of the machine. Flat blades at their extremities extend from one 
set of arms to the next. A large beater, of a different style entirely, as 
shown in Fig. 9, is quite commonly used in openers. 



f^ 




/l ' _ ' ^ ** lf.' '■;;,<; *.»;>-^J>y''^«\\''j>T'V;'-'y»y»;'-'j,Vr''^^ 




Fig. 12. 



BREAKER LAPPERS, 

The next machine in use is called a " breaker lapper," or a "breaker 
picker." It has two functions, one to open the cotton still further for 
the purpose of cleaning, and the other to deliver the cotton in a cylin- 
drical roll called a "lap. ' ' There is always an intimate connection between 
the opener and the breaker lapper. Two general arrangements are in 
vogue for connecting the opener and breaker lapper ; first, the two may 
be on the same floor and mechanically connected so as to appear as one 
machine; second, the opener may be on one floor, the breaker lapper on 
another, and the two connected by what is called a dust trunk (or cleaning 



i8 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



trunk). The first arrangement will receive attention at the beginning 
owing to its simplicit}'. Fig. lo shows a machine constructed in this 
manner, all in front of the line a representing the lapper, and that behind 
it the opener with an automatic feeder. Partiall}^ opened cotton is carried 
from the beater of the opener by what we call suction, and drawn upon two 
•cj^linders known as "dust cages." They are large hollow C3"linders 



having a surface of wire screening. They are 



arranged 



one above 




Fig. 10. 



the other, and the cotton passes between them. Reference to Fig. 
1 1 will help to make the description clear. In this figure is shown a 
section of a lapper through the dust cages. The shafts which support 
the cages are shown at a and B. Fitted on these shafts are the sleeves 5 
and s^ . On the sleeves 5- and s'^ are the gears R and R^ by which, through 
suitable driving mechanism, the sleeves are made to revolve loosely on the 
shafts a and B. The cages are firmly attached to the sleeves by five 
armed spiders seen in Fig. 27; the}^ consequently revolve loosely around 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



19 



the shafts a and B. The ends of the cages open into chambers separated 
from the rest of the machine. The depth of these chambers is readily 
seen in Fig. 1 1 , and their width and appearance outside of the machine 
in Fig. 10. These chambers are called dust flues. Inside the flues in 
the middle of the machine is placed a fan F, 18 or 20 inches in diameter. 
It revolves at a speed of about 1,200 revolutions a minute, and as it is 




7777777777777. 



777777777777777777777777/77^' 

■ 1 



/ ;// A A y//V. .7 ///7//H77777777)/))l/7h/U), 
Fig. II, 



situated directly over the junction of the two flues from the machine, 
which unite at K, and are connected with a dust room, which in turn 
opens into the outside air, its rapid revolution exhausts the air from the 
wire cylinders. The cotton being in a light and fluffy condition is easily 
carried on to the cylinders by the atmospheric pressure behind, or as we 
commonly say, by suction. The holes in the screen covering are too 



20 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



small to allow cotton fibre to pass through, yet the strong draught 
induced by the fan pulls light dust through. This takes the course shown 
by the arrow, finally reaching the dust room. Attached to the shafts a 
B at ^ and ^^ are dampers, by adjusting which some of the surface of 
the dust cages may be covered, and the draft at any point regulated. 

At present there appears to be a preference for the second arrange- 
ment mentioned, namely: the connecting of the two machines by means 



n 



^ 



7^7-77 — T j^ < * J _j - '■^'■_J <^^< I Zl j, ' ' J^ J •* '^ •* '-•'-,'' ^^ ' _' -L-^ -1^ '— j_ •* -XT'" 




Fig. 13. 



of a dust trunk, the opener being at a considerable distance from the 
breaker lapper. The trunk is thought to give greatly added cleaning 
power. A view showing the opener on one floor and the breaker lapper 
on another is shown at Fig. 13, in which the long wooden cleaning 
trunk can readily be seen. Detached views of the trunk are shown in 
Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17. 

Fig. 17 shows clearly a sectional view. There are three compart- 
ments to the trunk shown. Through the upper passage a^ the light 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



21 



cotton slowly passes, being drawn on by the induced air draught in the 
breaker lapper. The bottom of the passage consists of grid bars through 
which dirt may fall into the pockets b. The bottoms of these are hinged 
at d, so that they may be let down when it is desired to remove the dirt. 
The bottoms d are held in position by springs /", on the outside of the 
trunk, which press against short levers e, attached to the hinges d. 
Beneath the pockets is a passage g connected with a fan. This fan can 
be seen at h, in Fig. 15. It is over a dust flue connected with the dust 
room. At the ends of the passage g are the doors, z andy, Fig. 15, by 



Fig. 14. 



Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 




which it may be tightly closed. When it is desired to remove the dirt 
from the pockets d, the exhaust fan h is first started. The doors / and / 
are then both opened so that a strong draught of air is induced through 
the passage^. By releasing the springs /, the bottom of the pockets 
may be opened when they would assume the position shown at Fig. 16, 
sections A and C in section B in Fig. 16, showing the outside of trunk. 
The strong air draught in the passage g carries the dust out into the dust 
room. Any number of pockets may be cleaned at the same time, the fan 
being adapted to the cleaning of all of them at once- At s is shown an 
automatic sprinkler, which is now quite universally applied to cleaning 



22 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



trunks, and which proves to be very efifective in extinguishing the many 
fires which are likely to occur therein. 

The breaker lapper which is very commonly used in America with 
the arrangement now under discussion can be seen in Fig. i8 and a 
sectional view thereof in Fig. 19. Referring to Fig. 19, a description of 
the working of the machine may be given. The only difference between 
it and any other breaker lapper is the manner in which the cotton is 
received from the opener, and the feeding device with which it is fitted. 
The trunk through which the cotton comes from the opener is seen at T. 
It leads to the top of the machine as shown, where the cotton is drawn 
upon a single dust cage a. This dust cage is exactly like those previously 




^<^^^?^ 



r 



» 



^^NNNfE 



iM- 



'///////A' 



. ■■■ 



blG. 17. 



described. Only one is used here, however. The air current through it 
is induced by the fan /, the flue which communicates with the ends of 
the cage being shown in dotted lines. The cage revolves in the direction 
indicated by the arrow, carrying the cotton between itself and a wooden 
roll b. b is held against a by the lever and weight shown in dotted lines. 
The cotton then passes between b and c, being easily stripped from the 
cage, owing to the position of the damper d which prevents the current 
of air from exerting influence upon the part of the cage behind the 
rollers. The cotton then drops down into what is called a ''gauge box." 
An adjustable back is provided for this, so that the amount held by the 
box may be regulated, any surplus falling over the top and on to the 
shelf 6-. The object of the gauge box is to keep the amount fed to the 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



23 



lapper uniform. When the lapper is stopped, considerable cotton is 
passing between the opener and the lapper. On restarting the breaker, 
if there were no regulation of the feed, an extra large amount of cotton 
would be fed, followed by a small amount. By keeping the gauge box full 
of cotton, the amount fed to the machine will always be uniform, or 
practically so. 

At the bottom of the gauge box is an endless lattice apron, whose 




Fig. 18. 



duty is to carry the cotton along to the feed rollers, which feed it to the 
beater K. Grids g beneath the beater allow dirt to fall out on the floor 
beneath. The good cotton is drawn on over the grids J to a pair of dust 
cages LM. These are similar to the first ones described, and have the 
duty, first, of condensing the cotton into a sheet; second, of evening it 
slightly; and third, of allowing light du.st to be drawn through themselves 
into the dust flues and to the dust room. 

Directly in front of the dust cages are two small stripping rolls q, sim- 



24 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



ilar to feed rolls. Their dut}^ is to strip the cotton from the cages and to 
compress it a little. This work of stripping is aided by dampers at the 
ends of the dust cages. These confine the action of the air draught to the 
back of the cages. After leaving the vStripping rolls, the cotton, now in a 
continuous but thick sheet, passes along a plate and then between two 
heavy calender rolls, around the front of the lower one, between it and a 




Fig. 19. 



third, around the back of the third, and between it and a fourth. The 
course of the cotton is clearly shown in the drawing. By this time the 
sheet is quite thin. It is then carried over a large fluted roll to a second 
similar one. Between these two, on the top of the sheet of cotton, an iron 
rod is placed. About this the cotton is trained, and the revolution of the 
large fluted rolls keeps the mass in motion and rolls it up. In order to 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



25 



make the lap tightly compressed so that much msLj be put into little space, 
a weighing device is applied which will soon be described. The calender 
rolls, heavy of themselves, and additionally weighted by levers and 
weights, make the sheet of cotton quite thin; but the elasticity of the 
cotton would make the lap expand unless it were formed under pressure. 
Figs. 20 and 21 show the lap-forming mechanism at the front of the 
machine. 

The sheet of cotton can be seen passing between the two lowest cal- 
ender rolls, and its course is indicated from that point to the lap by dotted 




Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



lines. The lap nearly formed is shown at A. Protruding from the end 
of the lap is the lap rod a, around which the sheet of cotton is being 
wound by the revolution of the two large fluted rolls on which it rests. 
On each end of the lap rod, one end only being shown here, rest two rollers 
B, attached to C. C has on its inner side a rack c gearing with a pinion 
c^ on the shaft c~ . By a train of spur gearing, concealed from view, in 
Fig. 20, by the side of the machine, but shown in section in Fig. 21, the 
pinion c'^ is connected with a tension wheel <:'', running loosely around the 
same shaft c-. Resting against the wheel c' is a brake shoe d, formed on 



26 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



the lever D, on one end of which is the overbalancing weight d^ and at 
the other end is formed a treadle d'^-' . As the lap increases in size, the lap 
rod presses against the hangers B, and the sliding rack bars C are raised. 
The train of gearing is set in motion, the amount which it may move 
depending upon the tension exerted upon the tension wheel by the brake- 
shoe on the weighted lever D. In the device shown there is a patented 
arrangement by which the tension can easily be varied by shifting the 




i'Hj. 22. 



position of the fulcrum of the weighted lever D. When the lap is to be 
removed, the treadle ^^ is pressed down by the foot, and the pressure on 
the tension wheel c^^ is removed. Then by means of the hand wheel c^^ , 
which is fastened to the shaft c- the sliding racks C can be raised, thus 
freeing the lap rod. The rod is then pulled out of the lap, and the lap is 
removed. When the lap rod for a new lap has been replaced and the sheet 
of cotton formed around it, the hangers B are again preSvSed down upon it, 
and the weighted lever again allowed to exert its power. The arrange- 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



27 



ment shown is the one adopted by the Pettee Machine Works, but is in its 
essential features a typical lap-forming device. The same means for making 
a lap is applied to the intermediate and finisher lappers, so a description 
of one suffices for all. 

INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER LAPPERS 

The laps formed on the breaker lapper are fed to the intermediate. 
The functions of the intermediate lapper are three; first, to clean the cot- 
ton still more; second, to form a lap; and third, to make this lap more 
uniform in weight, if possible, than the ones formed on the breaker. The 




Fig. 23. 



first two functions are performed as on a breaker lapper; the chief differ 
ences between the breaker and the intermediate lapper are in the manner 
of feeding, and in the additional evening device with which the inter- 
mediate lapper is fitted. 

Fig. 22 is a view in perspective of an intermediate lapper made b}' 
the Kitson Machine Co. It is a typical lapper, the English name scutcher 
being seldom used in America. The feeding arrangement is clearly 
shown. Four laps from the breaker lapper are placed upon the endless 
lattice of the feed table. From the ends of the laps protrude wooden or 
iron lap rods which rest against shoulders on each side of the machine. 
The onward movement of the lattice unrolls the laps, which are retained 



28 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

in their position by the pressure of the rod against the shoulders. By 
feeding four laps instead of one, or instead of having a continuous 
passage of the cotton from one machine to another, opportunity is given 
to assist in producing a more uniformly weighted lap. If four laps of a 
definite weight per j^ard are made into one lap of about the same weight, 
the lap formed is apt to have fewer inequalities than any one of those fed. 
While this principle of doubling does undoubtedly assist in producing 
evenness, its influence is not sufficient. A device called an **evener" 
has consequently been made use of. A view of the style of evener con- 
structed by the Pettee Machine Shops is shown in Fig. 23. Referring to 
this view a description of the working of this particular evener can be 
given. The lattice feeding apron is shown at C with a part of the cotton 
shown coming within the action of the feed roll A. Before the cotton is 
fed to the beater, it passes under the upper or larger feed roll and over a 
feed plate. The feed plate shown partly in Fig. 23 is made in 
eight independent sections B, each attached to levers D, either 
working upon pivots or resting upon knife edges. The tail pieces of the 
levers are sufficiently heavy to press the plates against the roller. By 
means of the chains G a connection is made between the plate levers D 
and the lever K. Any upward movement of the tail ends of D produces a 
corresponding movement of K, and vice versa. Any movement of E causes 
by means of the connections shown a partial revolution of the shaft I. To 
the shaft I is attached a quadrant K. The teeth in the quadrant engage 
the teeth in a rack on the rod L. ly has attached to it a belt connecting 
two cone drums J and J^. These are of a special shape to be discussed 
later, the driving cone being concave and the driven convex. These 
cones are so placed that the large end of one is opposite the small end of 
the other. Kny movement of the quadrant must move the position of 
the belt on the cone. A change from the large end of the driving cone 
to the smaller, would, of course, mean a decreased speed of the driven 
cone. Hence a movement of the belt along the cones will mean an 
increase or a decrease in the number of revolutions made by the driven 
cone in a given time. On the end of the shaft of the top or driven cone 
is a worm, driving a worm gear H on the feed roll. By tracing the con- 
nection just outlined, it can be seen that an upward or downward move- 
ment of the sectional feed plate causes an increased or a decreased speed 
of the feed roll A. Of course the speed of the feed roll determines the 
amounc of cotton fed to the machine. If a thick place in the lap passes 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



29 



between the feed roll and the feed plate, the section of the feed plate 
over which it passes will be immediately depressed. The connection of 
chains and levers will move the belt along the cones so that the feed roll 
will be decreased in speed just sufficiently to compensate for the thick 
place which has passed. If a thin place passes through, the opposite 
effect is produced, the speed of the feed roll increasing. Of course not 
one, but generally all of the sections of the feed plate are moving at the 
same time, some up, some down. Each exerts its influence on the lever 




Fig. 24. 



E, but often the action of some counteracts the action of others, so that 
only the resultant effect influences the speed of the feed roll. No evener is 
perfect, since for every thick place there must follow a corresponding thin 
place. Hence there is much necessity of having the communication of 
the motion as nearly instantaneous as possible. The more sensitive the 
evener, the better the result. The importance of producing even laps 
makes the evener an especially important part of the lapper. 

Another style of evener is shown in Fig. 24. In this case levers do 
all the work, no chains at all being used. The claim of the maker of 



30 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



this type is that it surpasses any where cords or chains are used, since 
levers are more sensitive in their action, owing to the tendency of chains 
and cords to stretch ; while the claim for the other style is an increased 
sensitiveness owing to the dependence upon circular motion rather than 
linear. 

The third tj-pe of evener, which is also of American make, the prod- 
uct of the Kitson Machine Co., differs much in construction from the 
two very similar types shown. The evening is done by sectional plates 
above the cotton. An outside view of this device is shown in Fig. 25, 
and a sectional view in Fig. 26. Referring first to Fig. 26, the relation 
between the plates and the feed roll can best be seen, and the course of 





Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



the cotton traced. There are sixteen sections of the evening plate; they 
are joined by saddles in sets of two, the saddles being surmounted by 
others, as are these in turn until the number is reduced to one. Any 
movement of the plates actuates this one, and it in turn by suitable con- 
nections shifts the belt along the cones, thus regulating the speed of the 
evening roll. In this special type there are used two cylindrical drums in 
addition to cones. Their use is to obviate all possible slipping of the cone 
belt, and to facilitate rapid change of its position. In front of the evening 
roll are two feed rolls, from which the cotton is beaten or picked, as in the 
breaker lapper. In ever}^ intermediate lapper, after passing the evener, 
the cotton is acted upon by a bladed beater, drawn upon dust cages, com- 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 3 1 

pressed b}^ them, passed through calender rolls, and formed into a lap as 
previously described. The finisher picker or lapper is the exact counter- 
part of the intermediate, and in mills, where the production is small, the 
same machine may be used to perform both processes. Fig. 27 shows a 
sectional view of the finisher or intermediate lapper. The close resem- 
blance to the breaker lapper will be seen and the differences usually 
recognized. The one shown is a German and English type. American 
makers now commonly construct the dust cages of the same size. 

All through the picker room processes the aim is to remove all the 
foreign substances from the cotton, and to produce a roll of cotton everj' 
yard of which should be of a uniform weight and thickness. At the same 
time it is essential that the cotton fibres be not injured. A consideration 




Fig. 27. 

of each object above set forth may well be made here, and important 
principles of working be emphasized. 

Cleaning, as already described, is done by means of beaters, grid bars 
and dust cages, and can be only partially regulated after the machine has 
been constructed. There must be a relation between the beaters and the 
grid bars beneath, but this relation is usually fixed by the machine maker 
and is unchangeable. The grid bars, within whose action the cotton first 
comes, are placed nearer to the beater than those farther around. Their 
inclination is also sharper. Sonie machine builders make it possible to 
adjust the grid bars in their relation, both to the beater and to each other. 
The principle underlying their adjustment is that the dirtier the cotton, 
the nearer must the grid bars approach the line of action of the beater, 
yet never must they be so near as to injure the fibre. The length of the 
fibre and the thickness of the sheet of cotton will be additional factors in 



32 COTTON" YARN MANUFACTURE 

determining the proper setting distance. Much must be got by experience, 
but a little thought will usually enable one to settle upon the proper 
course to pursue. 

Another influence upon the cleanliness of the product of pickers is 
the air draft induced b\^ the exhaust fan. It has been pointed out hitherto 
that one of the requisites is an even draft. Another is that the draft be 
not too great, nor yet too small. The influence of an excessive air draft 
on the cleanliness is considerable. This will readily be understood, when 
the reason for having any air draft is considered. The centrifugal force of 
the beater is sufficient to carry the cotton in its fleecy condition a consider- 
able distance away. Yet, if the action of this force alone were depended 
upon, the fleecy cotton would be carried along in a by no means uniform 
condition. Hence it will be seen that the artificial air draft is introduced 
in order to direct the cotton upon a certain area, and should be only suffi- 
cient to do that. Too much draft would tend to draw more cotton than 
just enough to cover the cages used. The result, with which we are now 
concerned, would be that the cotton would be drawn on so quickly that 
some dirt, which ought to leave it, would not be allowed to do so, and 
there would also be a great chance of causing unevenness in the fleece. 
Too little air draft would not influence cleanliness as much as evenness. 
If there were not sufficient draft to attract the cotton to the cages, so that 
it would cling tightly, a chance, and a wide one too, would exist that 
there would be places on the cages to which the cotton would not cling; 
the effect on the lap produced is evident. Too much emphasis therefore 
cannot be laid upon the maintenance of an even air draft of just sufficient 
strength to draw the cotton evenly over the whole receiving surface of the 
cages. Experience has shown that a large fan gives more uniform draft. 
Consequently fans are usually made i8 inches or 22 inches in diameter, 
and of the shape shown in figures. They are given a high rate of speed, 
1 , 200 to 1 ,400 revolutions per minute. Their speed of course influences the 
strength of the draft, while the evenness thereof depends mainly upon the 
cleanliness of the flues which connect the air chambers in the lappers 
with the outside air. These must not be allowed to become at all clogged, 
if even air draft is expected. To summarize it may be said that the factors 
influencing cleanliness of the lap produced by a picker are (i) the relation 
between the beater and the grid bars, (2) the relation between the grid 
bars themselves, (3) the strength of the air draft. 

Upon the uniformity or evenness of the lap, one of the greatest 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 33 

influences has already been discussed. The uniform air draft tends to 
make the sheet of cotton even in weight throughout its width by drawing 
the same amount upon all parts of the receiving area of the dust cages 
simultaneously. Since the greater surface is offered in the direction of 
the width of the machine, the greater amount of evening will occur in 
that direction. Each yard of width of the lap produced and each yard 
of length should always be the same. In other words, it is desirable 
that a square yard taken from one part of the lap should weigh exactly 
w^hat a square yard from any other part weighs. The uniformity in 
weight throughout the width is as already shown, brought about by an 
uniform air draft. The evenness of length depends upon the accurate 
working of the evener. Of course the evener cannot regulate the weight 
of sections in the width of the lap. It can only make the whole amount 
of cotton fed within a given time uniform. A thick place will have its 
corresponding thin place. With a sensitive evening device the actual 
amount fed in within any fixed time remains practically the same. This 
therefore insures that each 3'ard of length wall have in it the same amount 
of cotton, and the air draft must be depended upon to spread this amount 
uniformly over the cages. 

It is very important that all parts of the evening mechanism be 
free from dirt, which quickly accumulates more extensively upon 
some types of eveners than upon others. If an almost instantaneous 
regulation of the speed of the evener feed roll can be had, good results 
are assured. 

An attachment is applied to the eveners, whereby the evener plates 
can be moved nearer to or farther away from the evener roll, thus per- 
mitting the thickness of the lap to be regulated very closely. The setting 
device is commonly a thumbscrew upon a thread of fine pitch. It is 
shown at g"^ in Fig. 23. Of course this regulation is only possible within 
limits, any greater change in the amount fed being dependent upon 
another source soon to be mentioned. 

The evener is sometimes applied to the automatic feed of an opener. 
The evener plates and roll work at the point where the cotton is fed to 
the first beater, and the part whose speed is changed, is the feed roll and 
ascending spiked feeding lattice. Of course it is obvious that in no case 
should the feeding of the cotton to any of the machines by the one tend- 
ing be neglected. The evener cannot make compensation for the 
thickness of a whole lap. So four laps must always be fed on inter- 



34 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

mediate.s and finishers, one never being allowed to run out; and on an 
opener the hopper should be well filled. 

To summarize, the factors influencing uniformity of the lap may be 
said to be (i) an uniform speed, which depends upon: a, the care of the 
attendant, b, the sensitiveness of the evener device; (2) a regular air 
draft of proper strength. 

Equally as important a consideration as cleanliness and uniformity is 
avoidance of any injury to the fibre. The action of all the preparatory 
machines is harsh and severe, and there is undoubtedly danger of injury. 
This danger is, of course, at the place where the beater does its work. 
The principal cause of injury to the fibre is crushing by the beater. The 
distance between the feed rolls and the beater should be sufficient to allow 
the beater to strike the projecting sheet of cotton without crushing the 
fibres, and not large enough to allow a large amount to protrude. The 



effect of a close setting is evident ; that of a wide one is to allow the 
cotton to be curled up into what are called "cattails." The distance 
depends upon two points, (i) the length of the staple, and (2) the 
amount being passed through the machine. The action of the beater 
should be to pull the cotton away from the sheet evenly throughout the 
whole 40 inches width of the machine. The blow struck is very forcible, 
therefore the blades must not be sharp enough to cut the fibres, nor so 
dull that they will rub the cotton without detaching it. Beaters with two 
and three arms are largely used, both being very popular. Theoretically, 
the three-armed beater would give a more forcible blow at shorter inter- 
vals than the two-armed. Practical considerations make it advisable to 
run the three-armed beater more slowly, which reduces its theoretical 
advantage. As a matter of fact, both types give good results in detaching 
and cleaning the cotton. 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 35 

A third type is shown in Fig. 28. This beater has inclined teeth upon 
it and is called a * * carding beater. " It is sometimes applied to the finisher 
lapper. It tends to comb the cotton a little, lightening to some extent the 
duty of the card. Its cleaning power is undoubtedly less than that of the 
bladed beater, but it is quite popular on the cleaner cottons. Still another 
type shown in Fig. 9 is used in openers, especially on the short-stapled 
dirt}^ cottons. Its size and striking parts offer very good cleaning power 
for short, strong cotton. It is never used except at the opener. 

The arrangement of the machines is largely a matter of convenience, 
and one mainly decided by the mill architect. It is important that the 
finisher lappers be near the carding room to which the laps are taken. The 
openers must also be near the place for storing the bales of cotton. These 
points often necessitate the placing of some machines on one floor and 
others on another, as previoush' mentioned. 

INTRODUCTION TO CALCULATIONS 
Draft. 

There are some words and expressions which are used throughout 
the processes of cotton spinning in a technical sense. While their meaning 
can be traced to the ordinary significations of the words, yet in many 
cases this connection is not evident. The first term of this sort is "draft." 
The word is used in connection with every machine from the bale breaker 
to the spinning frame, and its meaning ought to be understood at the ver}- 
beginning. In its broadest general sense, draft means a drawing out. On 
the bale breaker, it will be remembered, the large lumps of cotton were 
drawn out. The machine is therefore said to have introduced draft. On 
the breaker lapper a large mass of cotton is drawn out into a thin lap. 
On the intermediate and finisher lappers, four laps are drawn out into one 
which is of nearly the same weight per yard as one of those fed. It is 
clear, then, that in each of these machines there is what is technically 
termed draft. This must be clearly distinguished from the same word 
which has been used previously to mean a current of air. E)raft in the 
sense now being discussed is always produced by causing the delivering roll 
of the machine to revolve faster than the feeding roll. 

It is customar}' to say that a machine has a certain amount of draft, 
eg-., a bale breaker has a draft of 24, a lapper has a draft of 4.24, etc. By 
these numerical expressions is meant the number of times that any given 
length of cotton fed to tlie machine is increased by the time that it is 



36 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

delivered. If a machine is said to have a draft of four, the amount of 
cotton in one 3^ard of the strand of cotton, in whatever form it may be, 
would be so drawn out while passing through the machine, that its length 
would be four yards when delivered. Or considering the matter from the 
point of view of weight per yard, it may be said, that if one yard of the 
strand fed weighed 40 ounces, and a draft of four w^ere given, one yard 
of the strand produced would weigh only one fourth as much, or ten 
ounces. 

We may then technically define draft (i) as the number of times that 
a given length is increased while passing through any machine, or (2) as 
the number of times that the weight of a given length is decreased. 

It is obvious that in order to produce laps of given weight per yard, 
as has been pointed out to be necessary, some means must be adopted for 
calculating the draft of every machine, and for giving any machine a 
definite amount of draft. This brings us to the point of entering upon a 
discussion of some arithmetical calculations. 

There are in connection with cotton machinery arithmetical 
operations which are essential to t]ie production of good work. Careful 
calculations must be made if speed and economy in reaching results are 
desired. In actual mill work hitherto there has been much "rule of 
thumb" calculation, which has been merely "guess work," or a depend- 
ence upon the results of long experience. But by application of a few, 
not always difiQcult, mathematical processes, results can quickly and 
accurately be reached. 

These calculations have to do with the speeds at which different 
parts of the various machines run, and the weights and lengths of the 
strands of cotton fed to and delivered by them. Before devoting atten- 
tion to the calculations required on the machines already described, it 
will be advantageous to lay down some general definitions and rules 
which will guide us through all the later mathematical work. 

DEFINITIONS 
I. Speed. 

(a) The "speed" of an organ of any machine is the number of 
revolutions or vibrations, or traverses made by it in a unit of time. The 
unit of time usually taken is one minute ; and all speeds hereafter 
mentioned will be on that basis unless otherwise specified. 

(d) "Surface speed" is the distance through which a point on the 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 37 

surface of an organ passes in a unit of time. In this case the unit of 
time is commonly one minute, and the units of distance are feet and 
inches. 

II. Pulleys. 

A pulley is a wheel used to receive or transmit power, when the 
power passes from one pulley to another b}' the medium of belts or bands. 

Note. — Belts made in rope form are almost invariably called bands. 

A ^a m es for Pnllej 's . 

(i) Driving pulleys are those which transmit power. 

(2) Driven pulle3^s receive power from driving pulleys. Two belts 
are seldom connected with the same pulley, so that in any train of pulleys 
+lie number will be even ; for every driving there will be a driven pulley. 

III. Gears. 

A gear is a toothed wheel used to transmit or receive power. 

(<2) Spur gears are those whose teeth have their edges perpendicular 
to the radii. 

{b) Bevel gears are those the edges of whose teeth are angularly 
disposed to the radii. 

(r) Pinion is the name applied to a small gear working into a larger 
one. 

(d) Worm is a sort of screw used to revolve a gear. 

Note i. — The expressions " driver" and "driven" apply with the same meaning 
to gears as to pulleys. 

Note 2. — Since gears mesh one with another without the intervention of belts, 
the number in a train may be even or odd. 

In the case of a train of three or more gears meshing one with 
another, each gear between the first and the last, both receives and trans- 
mits power; hence it is both a driving and a driven gear. Such a gear 
is called an ' ' intermediate " or a " carrier. ' ' 

FUNDAMENTAL RULES 

I. To Find the Speed of a Driven Pulley. 

The necessary data are the diameters of the driving and the driven 
pulleys, and the speed of the driving pulley. 

{a) When the train consists of two pulleys only. 



38 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

Derivation of Rule. 

Pulleys are connected by endless belts. If a pulley having a 
circumference of lo inches makes loo revolutions a minute, loo times lo 
inches of belt pass over any point on its suface in one minute. The same 
number of inches of belt also passes over any point on the driven pulley. 
Since the driven pulley is driven by contact with the belt, if its circum- 
ference is 8 inches, it will make as many revolutions per minute as 8 is 
contained times in lOO times lo, or 125 revolutions. 

In order to understand the principle just shown, it is necessary to 
consider the circumference of the pulley. The circumference of any 
circle is 3.1416 X its diameter, and in the instance above cited, one 
circumference is divided by the other, consequently, the number 3.1416 
cancels out in the arithmetical operation; and may be neglected as shown 
in the example below. 

From the above demonstration the following rule may be derived: 

Rule. — To find the speed of a driven pulley, multipl}^ the speed of 
the driving pulley by its diameter, and divide this result b}^ the diameter 
of the driven pulley. The quotient will be the speed of the driven pulley. 

Example i. Diameter of driving pulley, 12 inches 

" driven " 25 
Speed of driving pulley, 142 revolutions. 
Speed of driven pulley = 12 x 142 



25 



68.16 



If the circumferences had been used as the reasoning used in deriving 
the rule necessitates, the operation would be written as follows : 

12 X 3.1416 X I4 g^^s^^^ 
25 X 3.1416 

For practical work we therefore disregard the circumference and use 
the diameters only. 

{b') When the driven pulley is the last of a train of pulleys. The 
rule for this can best be derived from an example. Let it be assumed 
that there are in the train the following pulleys: 

8" pulley driving to 12" pulley 

6 It ( ( ( ( i 4 „'/ t ( 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 39 

Speed of first driving pulley has been found by counting to be 184 
revolutions. 

By applying the rule already given, the speed of the 12" pulley will 
be found as follows: 

Example i. 8 x 184 368 

= = 122-3 revolutions. 

12 ^ 

Since the first driven pulley is on the same shaft as the second driv- 
ing pulley, the speed of the 15" pulley in the example is 122^ in. 
Proceeding now with the example: 

Example 2. 368 x 15 1840 _ , . 

= = i4It^ revolutions. 

3x13 13 

Speed of second driven pulley. 
. Proceeding further: 

Example ?. 1840 6 2208 ^ , , , . 

X — = ^ i6qt^ revolutions. 

13 5 13 

Speed of last driven pulley. 

Answer, 169!^ revolutions. 

If the operations just performed are examined it will be found that 
the diameters of the driving pulleys have been used as multipliers, always 
occurring in the numerator of the fraction. Likewise the diameters of 
the driven pulleys have always been used in the denominators. The 
speed of the first driver is used as a multiplier. The whole example may 
be performed therefore in one operation as follows : 

Example 4.. i84x8xisx6 2208 ^ , , 

^ ^ ^ ^ = = i69|i as above. 

12 X 13 X 5 13 

We may now derive a rule. 

/^2tle. — To find speed of a driven pulley at the end of a long train, 
multiply the diameters of the driving pulleys together, and that product 
by the speed of the first driving pulley. Divide this product by the 
product of the diameters of the driven pulleys. The quotient obtained 
will be the speed of the last pulley of the train. 

Note. — The rule is applicable to a train of pulleys of any length. The work 
should be done in one example of cancellation. 



40 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

The rules above derived apply as well to toothed gears, except that 
instead of circumferences or diameters, the number of teeth in the gears 
is used. In applying these rules to gears, intermediates fall out of the 
calculation. Their nature, as before mentioned, makes them both drivers 
and drivens, hence in the arithmetical operation they cancel out — 

Example. — A 74-toothed gear runs at a speed of 52. It meshes with 
a 94- toothed gear, the 94 with a 48, the 48 with a 21 and the 21 with a 
26. Find the speed of the last or 26-toothed gear. 

The example in full would be written as follows : 

S2 X 74 X 04 X 48 X 21 

— ^-^ — = 148 revolutions. 

94 X 48 X 21 X 26 

Answer, 148 revolutions. 

In actual practice the example would be written as follows : 

52 X 74 ^ , . 

~ ;. — = 148 revolutions. 

26 

Answer, 148 revolutions. 

II. Surface Speed. 

To find the surface speed of a pulley, roll or C3'lindrical surface of 
any sort, multiply the speed by the circumference. 

Example. Speed of puUe}-, 100. 

Diameter, 14". 

r^ r -< 100x14x22 . . 

Surface speed = = 4400 inches per minute. 

The surface speed of any pulle}- or roll which comes at the end of a 
train of pulleys or gears, of which the speed of the first only, and the 
sizes of the others are known, may of course be found by one operation 
only. It is simply necessary to introduce into the numerator the circum- 
ference of the pulley or roll in question. 

Referi-ing to example 4 above. The surface speed of the last pulle}' 
would be found as follows : 

184 X 8 X 1=5 X 6 x 5 X 22 00 . 1 

— ^ ^ ^ :3=27i74f niches per minute. 

12 X 13 X 5 X 7 



PREPARATORY PROCESS EvS AND MACHINES 4 1 

III. Draft. 

Rule I. — To find the draft of any machine divide the surface speed 
of the delivering roll b}^ the surface speed of the feeding roll. 

This is the fundamental rule which will always apply. Modifications 
of it which are at times simpler to use in actual practice may well be 
given. It is often inconvenient to perform the calculation of finding the 
actual surface speeds of both feeding and delivering rolls of a machine 
when only the draft is desired. Since it is actually only the relation 
between these surface speeds which is necessary a useful rule may be made. 

Rule 2. — Consider that the gear or pulley on the end of the feeding 
roll drives the rest of the machine, and consider that its speed is one. 
By following the train of gears or pulleys from this roll to the delivering 
roll, the surface speed of the delivering roll ma3^ be found. This result 
will be the surface speed of that roll for the time required by the feeding 
roll to make one revolution. To find the draft it is only necessary to 
divide this surface speed as found, by the surface speed of the feeding 
roll for the same length of time, namely, for the time required b}^ it to 
make one revolution. Evident!}' in that time its surface speed will be 
one times its circumference. Bv using as the unit of time the time 
required by the feeding roll to make one revolution instead of the usual 
unit of one minute, the work is often much simplified. 

The rules for speeds and draft as given apply throughout all the 
processes of cotton vSpinning, They all refer to machines. Many other 
rules and mathematical calculations are necessary at different stages. 
They will be given at their proper place. It is now our intention to 
apply the rules already laid down to the machiner}^ iii a picker room. 

We shall devote our attention to the calculations on a finisher lapper 
which are essentiall}" the same as those on the preceding machines. A 
description of the manner of driving the various parts is however neces- 
sary at the outset. By reference to any one of the views of lappers it will 
be seen that there is at the top of the machine a countershaft which is 
connected by a belt with the beater shaft. The beater revolves at a speed 
of about 1, 500 turns a minute, and from it all the other parts of the machine 
receive their power. The various views shown give some little idea of the 
driving mechanism, but Fig. 29, which is a top view of all the driving 
parts of a finisher lapper, ma}- best be referred to for the description. 

The beater belt and the pulley which it drives on the beater shaft are 
shown at the right. Beside the pulley just mentioned is one connected by 



42 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



the belt shown to a pulley on the fan shaft at the bottom of the machine. 
On the opposite side is a second pulley connected by the calender belt 
to a much larger one near the front of the machine. The 24-inch pulley 
on which the belt is in Fig. 29 is loose upon the shaft, but has 
beside it fast upon the same shaft another pulley of the same size. 




= $ea.r J?rajtr. 



FiG. 29. 



The pulley on the beater shaft is twice as wide as the belt so that the belt 
may be easily shifted from the fast to the loose pulley above mentioned, 
thus stopping all parts except the beater and fan. On the same shaft with 
the 20-inch fast pulley is a small spur gear with 14-teeth meshing with 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 43 

one with 76 teeth. On the shaft with this a 14-toothed pinion meshes with 
a gear having 73 teeth. On the stud with this a pinion with i8-teeth 
drives two 37-toothed gears, each of which is on the end of one of the large 
calender rolls on which the lap rests while it is being formed. The driving 
of the calender rolls, the dust cages, and the stripping rolls is quite easily 
seen in the figure. It may, however, be mentioned that there is no direct 
connection between the 80-toothed gear and the lap pulley shaft, the gear 
being upon the shaft of the calender roll. 

The feeding parts get their power through the train of gearing starting 
with the gear marked draft gear on the end of the lap pulley shaft. There 
probably is no difficulty in tracing the connection from this point to the 
side shaft on which may be seen a cylindrical drum connected by a belt 
with a conical pulley. At the end of its shaft is what is called a single 
worm, one revolution of which turns the worm wheel with which it meshes 
forward one tooth. The 85-toothed worm wheel has on the same stud 
with itself a pinion with 20 teeth, meshing with a gear with 28 teeth and 
with another having 39 teeth. The 28 gear is on the same shaft with the 
evener roll, a gear on which drives the lower feed roll. The 39 gear is on 
the roll around which the lattice feed apon runs, and from gearing starting 
at the other end of this roll the top feed roll gets its power. 

The gearing on all lappers is not exactly as described, but the ar- 
rangement shown is sufficiently typical to convey a general idea of lapper 
gearing. In the calculations which follow the sizes of the gears shown in 
the figure will be used. We shall also assume that a 20-toothed gear is 
being used as a draft gear, and that the speed of the beater is 1,500 revo- 
lutions per minute. The following sizes are not shown in the drawing: 

Diameter of pulle}^ on beater shaft ^% inches 

" " " connected with above 24 " 

" " large evener drum 10 " 

" " conical drum at middle point. 3^ " 

" " feed roll 2^ 

" lap roll 9 

'* *' fan driving pulley 6 

" " pulle}^ on fan shaft 7 " 



44 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

CALCULATIONS. 

:« . Speed of dust cage = 

1500 X 9 X 14 X 13 X 14 X 68 

T — 7. TT = 1-535 I'Gv. per min. 

2 X 24 X 76 X 80 X 29 X 180 ^ 



Speed of fan :^ 

1500 X 6 



7 

Speed of lap roll = 
1500 X9X 14X 14X I 



= 1285.7 ^^^'- P^^^ min. 



2 X 24 X 76 X 73 X 37 



4.83 rev. per min. 



4. Surface speed of lap roll equals above result times the circum- 
ference = 4.83 X 9 X 3.1416 = 136.56 inches per minute. 



5. Speed of feed roll =: 

1500 X 9 X2OX4OXIOX 4 X I X20Xl6 

2 X 24 X 30 X 54 X 13 X 85 X 28 X 12 



^=- 4.78 rev. per min. 



This example led us through the evener drums, whose diameters we 
treat in the same manner as the number of teeth in gears, considering 
that the belt is at the middle point. The single worm on the cone shaft 
is the same as a gear having one tooth, except that it gives continuous 
instead of intermittent motion. The gear 60 is of course a carrier and 
need not be considered. 



Surface speed of feed roll = 
4.78 X 17 X 3. 1416 



8 



31.91 inches per minute. 



. 7. Draft. 
Reference has already been made to the draft gear which, as its name 
implies, is changed to regulate the draft. A glance at Fig. 29 will show 
that the draft gear is a driving gear in the train that drives the feed roll. 
Evidently a larger draft gear would increase the number of yards of cotton 
fed into the machine within a given time, while the amount delivered 
remains the same. Therefore b}^ the use of a larger draft gear the draft 
would be decreased, and vice versa. 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 45 

(a) Draft of the machine could be found by applying rule i under 
draft. So, by dividing the result of No. 4 by the result of No. 6, the draft 
of the machine could be found. Hence draft equals 

136.56 
-^ ^ = 4.28 



31-91 
(d) If we appl}^ rule 2 under draft, the operation will be as follows: 

Draft= 

12X28X85XJ3X54X30X14X18X 9x 8 

^ _ =4.28 

16 x 20 X I x 4 x 10 X 40 X 20 x 76 X 73 x 37 X 17 

Note. — If the calculations for draft only is to be made, the latter method is by 
far the simpler. 

8. Calculations relating to weight of lap and draft. 

(a) Finding the draft required to produce a lap of a certain weight 
per yard, when the weight per yard of one of the laps fed Js known. 

Ric/e. — Multiply the weight per yard of one of the laps fed by the 
number fed, which is usually four, and divide this product by the weight 
per yard of the lap to be delivered. 

(d) Finding the weight per yard of the lap fed, knowing the draft 
and the weight per yard of the lap delivered. 

Ru/e. — Weight per yard of lap fed equals weight per yard of lap 
delivered times draft, divided by the number of laps fed. 

(c) Finding the weight per yard of lap delivered, knowing the weight 
per yard of the lap fed and the draft. 

Ric/e. — Weight per yard of lap delivered equals weight per yard of 
laps fed times the number fed, divided by the draft. 

There is always considerable waste on lappers. The absolute amoun 
depends upon the cleanliness of the cotton. The per cent, of waste, what- 
ever it may be, must be allowed for in the calculations for draft. In 
calculations (a) and (c) the deduction should be made from the weight of 
the lap fed, and in calculation (d) the result will be a certain per cent, 
less than the true answer. 

A good way in which to determine the actual per cent, that ought to 
be deducted in any particular case is as follows: Weigh accurately a 
number of laps, e. g. 16, which are to be fed to the machine. Empty the 
machine of all the cotton in it, and feed in the laps weighed. Then weigh 



46 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

carefully all the laps produced. The difference in weight between the 
cotton fed and that produced will of course be the amount of waste. This 
difference divided b}'- the weight of the cotton fed will give the per cent, 
of waste. The per cent, of waste on openers is about 6, on intermediate 
lappers about 3, and on finishers about 2. 

9. Production. 

The production of all lappers is very large. It can be computed in a 
manner similar to the one which will be outlined later in connection with 
other machines. A simple and convenient method is as follows: Deter- 
mine the actual time required to produce a lap, either by computation or 
by actual timing, the latter method being the simpler; add to this two 
minutes to allow for removing the lap and restarting the machine The 
weight of a lap can of course be found by multiplying the length by the 
weight of one yard or by w^eighing the lap. In actual practice the laps 
should be weighed, in order to see that the proper weight per yard is being 
preserved. If the weight of a lap and the time required to produce it are 
known it is surel}' an easy matter to determine the production in pounds 
for any length of time desired. 

Laps are usually not far from 48 yards in length, and they weigh 
anywhere between 24 and 48 pounds. About ten minutes are required to 
produce and doff a lap; consequently the production of a lapper varies 
between 8,000 and 17,000 pounds for a week of 60 hours. 

10. Length of lap produced. 

As previously mentioned there is applied to finisher, and sometimes 
to intermediate and breaker lappers, a device for stopping the machine 
after a lap of a certain length has been delivered. By changing one of 
the gears in the train controlling the movement of a knock-off lever, the 
length of the lap, can easily be regulated. Fig. 29a shows in section and 
outline the lap end of a finisher lapper with all the gearing connections 
needed to compute the length of a lap. The calender rolls, lap rolls and 
lap will easily be recognized. The full and dotted circles represent gears, 
the dotted ones being on the opposite side of the machine. The working 
of the knock-off motion is as follows: A single-toothed worm on lowest 
calender roll drives a worm wheel on a side shaft. At the other end 
of the side shaft is a pinion, capable of being changed and known as the 
side-shaft change gear. This pinion meshes with the knock-off wheel 
which is shown in the figure to have 48 teeth. When the knock-off 
wheel has made one complete revolution, a pin upon it, not shown 



PREPARATORY PROCESSES AND MACHINES 



47 



in the drawing, releases a lever, which during the time that the macliine 
is running supports what is called a drop shaft. Upon that shaft, 
which is indicated in the drawing, is a pinion which drives both the 
calender rolls and the lap rolls. When the lever supporting the drop shaft 
is released, the pinion falls away from the gears which it has been driving. 




4? r.-i2 p 



14, 16, 18, 20 T.-12 p. 

Cliaiige Gears 



Fig. 2qA. 



They consequenth" stop, and no more cotton is delivered. At the same 
time a lever connected with the knock-off lever and extending along the 
side of the machine is so actuated as to throw out of gear a clutch on the 
end of the feed roll, thus preventing any more cotton from being fed to 



48 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

the machine. After the lap is removed the knock-off lever can be put 
back into position, and all the other parts restored to their normal 
condition. 

The above brief description will enable us to proceed to compute the 
length of a lap. To do this it is necessary only to determine the surface 
speed of the lap rolls for the length of time required by the 48-toothed 
knock-off wheel to make one complete revolution. We shall therefore 
consider that the knock-off wheel makes one revolution and that it is 
driving all the rest of the mechanism. By considering the knock-off wheel 
the first driver, we can find the result obtained by dividing the product of 
the driving gears by the product of the driven gears from the knock-off 
wheel to the gear on the lap roll inclusive. The result will be the speed 
of the lap roll. The surface speed in inches and then in yards ma\^ 
readily be found therefrom. 

Example. — Find the length of a lap if the change gear in use has iS 
teeth. 

Surface speed of lap roll for one revolution of knock-off wheel = 

^ ^ ^ ^-^ — = 1815.146 mches. 



18 X I X 14 X 54 
Yards in length of lap 



181 S.I 46 

-^ = 50.42 



Note. — Cotton while being rolled up is likely to stretch about 4 per cent., so 
that the length of a lap is about 4 per cent, more than the calculation shows. The 
above result, corrected on the assumption of 4 per cent, stretch, 'could be 52.43 yards. 



CHAPTER IV 



CARDING 

The fibres in a lap produced by a finisher picker need considerable 
further treatment before they can be spun into yarn. If a lap be 
examined it will be found still to contain many impurities clinging tightly 
and loosely as well, to the matted and tangled fibres. The impurities 




Pettee Revolving Flat Card. 



consist mainly of pieces of broken seeds and leaves, sticks, immature 
seeds, called "motes," tightly rolled balls of fibre called "neps," and 
considerable light dust. The action of the preceding machines has in no 
case except where the carding beater was used been one of combing ; 

4 (49) 



50 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



consequently the crossed and tangled condition of the fibres is natural. 
Moreover the fibres are by no means equal in length; short, immature 
ones are mixed indiscriminately with the long, ripe fibres. 

The machine which undertakes the treatment of such a mass of 
cotton is technically termed a " carding engine" or ** carding machine," 
colloquially a "card." While carding primarily means a combing 
process, the functions of a modern card are more than that, yet the 
combing or untangling operation is still pre-eminent. 

Briefly the objects to be attained by a modern card in their order of 
performance are : 




FXG. 30. 



(i) Removal of the heavier foreign substances, as motes, broken 
seeds and leaf. 

(2) Straightening of masses of tangled fibres, accompanied by 
Removal of short fibres, neps and light dust. 
The drawing out of the lap into a thin web. 
The forming of this web into a rope-like strand, called a 



(3) 
(4) 
(5) 

"sliver." 

(6) Coiling of the " sliver" in a cylindrical can. 

Three types of cards have been employed in cotton mills. 
intrinsic differences are in what is called the carding surface. 



The 



CARDING 



51 



The " roller card," shown in Fig. 30, performs its carding with the 
help of pairs of rollers, known as "workers" and "strippers." This 
t3^pe of card is now used onl}- in the manufacture of wool, worsted and 
waste yarn. 

The " stationary flat card," or " Well man card," is shown in Fig. 31. 
Its name describes its carding surface, which is made up of flat strips 




Fig. 31. 



which remain stationary. The name stationary fiat distinguishes this 
type from the third and most common type, the " revolving flat." 

The Wellman card is an American invention which has now given 
place almost entirely to the English type, the " revolving flat." Several 
practical advantages, not the least being increased production and 
economy of work, have led to its adoption. It seems therefore advisable 
to devote the following discussion to the revolving flat card. 

There are several makes of this kind of card. They resemble each 
other closely, differing only in the devices for adjusting various parts 



52 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURER 



common to all makes, and in the manner in which the different parts are 
constructed. They all perform the same work pretty satisfactorily, the 
nearest approach to perfection being claimed by many different builders. 

Reference to Figs. 31 and 32 may be made in connection with the 
description which follows. 

The ''lap" having end of an iron or wooden lap stick protruding 
from either end is placed at the back of the machine, and is made to rest 
upon a corrugated wooden roller called a " lap roll," B, in Fig. 33. B is 
given a positive motion in the direction of the arrow by means of a train 
of gears hereinafter shown. The contact between A and B unrolls the 




Fig. 32 



lap, which is prevented from being carried forward bodily by the contact 
of the protruding lap rod with the slotted uprights on each side of the 
card. One is shown at S in Fig. 32. 

As the lap is unrolled, the sheet of cotton is led along a smooth plate 
called a feed plate. This plate with the contiguous feeding parts is 
shown in Fig. 33, and in detail in Fig. 34. 

One end of the plate is dished out, so to speak, taking the curve of a 
roll called the feed roll which fits into it. Between the roll and the plate 
the cotton is passed. A firm grip is exerted by the roll owing to two 
weights which press upon it. One of these can be seen in Fig. 32. 

The roll itself is corrugated throughout its length, which equals the 



CARDING 



53 



width of the machine. It is positively driven b\" gearing at a speed 
varying from three-quarters of a turn to four turns per minute. 

Referring again to Fig. 34 it will be seen that the feed roll pushes 
the end of the lap within the action of saw teeth on the surface of a 
cylinder B- called the "licker-in." This organ revolves at a speed of 
about 400 turns per minute. The great speed and the shape of the teeth 
enable it to remove fibres from the end of the lap. 

The licker-in is a hollow cylindrical shell about 9 inches in diameter. 
Spiral grooves are cut in its periphery, and into these saw teeth are fitted. 




Fig. 33. 

The pitch of the spiral grooves is i inch, and usually eight are cut. The 
distance apart of the rows is therefore one-eighth of an inch. The saw 
teeth are made in a continuous roll, being drawn into the grooves by the 
revolution of the licker-in, and being suitably fastened at the ends. The 
teeth will therefore not follow each other in straight lines, but each tooth 
will be a slight distance at one side of the preceding one. There is 
hence offered to the lap, as it is fed, an unbroken line of points, so that 
the probability of striking all parts of the lap equally is almost certain. 
The saw teeth pass through the end of the lap, and after exerting a 
combing action detach the fibres that have been released from the grip of 



54 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



the feed roll. The fibres are held by the licker-in in all sorts of positions, 
but never in large lumps. Since the number of teeth passing the feed 
plate while an inch of lap is being fed is many hundred thousand, and 
since the fibres are scarcely more numerous, and are detached, not 
singly, but in groups of a few clinging together, it follows that many of 
the teeth on the licker-in will be bare. It never requires cleaning. 

The fibres which .are detached from the lap by the licker-in teeth are 
carried around beneath it. Placed near the surface of the licker-in, a short 
distance from the point where the cotton is detached from the lap, are two 




Fig. :si 



transverse peculiarly shaped bars, sharp on the top edge, known as mote 
knives. The shape and position of these knives are shown at B^ and B'^ 
in Fig. 34. Their duty is to aid in the removal of the heavier im- 
purities which still remain in the lap. Motes, dirt, pieces of leaf, which 
do not cling tightly to the fibre or the licker-in teeth, are by the centrif- 
ugal force of the licker-in thrown away from its surface. As they strike 
the sharp edge of the mote knives, they are deflected and fall down through 
the spaces to the floor. As the space between the edges of the knives and 
the licker-in teeth is very small, leaf, broken seed, etc., which do cling to 



CARDING 55 

the fibre, being longer than the space, are scraped off by the knives, and 
fall between them. It is at this point, therefore, that the majority of the 
heavy impurities in the lap are removed. Some long fibres loosely held 
are thrown through the interstices, but their number is very small. 

Placed directly in front of the mote knives in a curve conforming to 
the surface of the licker-in, is a tin arrangement called a " screen or under 
casing." In it are small spaces between the grids B' through which 
short loose fibres may be thrown on to the floor beneath. It is set very 
near the licker-in surface, and has the duty, first, of preventing fibres from 
being thrown away from the licker-in and becoming waste; and, second, 
of allowing shorter fibres and dust to be cast out. 




Fig. 35- 



This licker-in screen is bolted at c"^* and c-*^' to a similar one C'^ 
under the main cylinder. A view in perspective of the screen is shown at 

Fig. 35- 

B', Fig. 34, is a cover over the licker-in. B'' is a small rod covered 
with flannel, called a clearer roll, and is used to collect fl}^ which may 
come through the space between B^ and B'. B"^ is a wedge-shaped piece 
of wood covered with flannel and is also a clearer. 

The cotton which clings to the licker-in teeth is carried through i8o° 
and then entirely removed by the action of the teeth on the cylinder. The 
" cylinder" is a large cylindrical shell about 50 inches in diameter. It 
is commonly cast in one piece, sometimes in two and bolted together. It 
is strengthened by longitudinal and transverse ribs, and has fitted into its 
ends eight armed spiders, to be seen in Fig. 33. Through these a 



56 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

cast-iron shaft is placed; the means used for holding it firmly to the spiders 
differ in different makes of machines. In all cases it is securely fastened 
so as to be unable to become loose. The surface of the cylinder is smoothly 
planed and ground, and the whole cylinder is carefully and accurately 
balanced. Rows of holes are bored through the surface. Into them wooden 
plugs are driven. To the plugs is tacked the covering, which is known as 
" clothing." It consists of a long narrow strip or " fillet " about 2 inches 
in width, made of some closely woven fabric or india rubber, and con- 
tains short wire teeth, bent as shown in Fig. 34. The fillets, so 
called, are wound on the cylinder surface spirally, completely covering it. 

The inclination of these teeth when on the cylinder, and their rela- 
tion to the teeth on the licker-in, are shown in Fig. 34; their action will 
be easily understood. The cylinder has a speed of about 165 turns per 
minute. Owing to its large diameter, its surface vSpeed is about 2,100 feet 
per minute. The licker-in has a surface speed of only about 1,000 feet 
per minute. In addition to the difference in surface speed, it will be 
noticed as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 34, that the cylinder teeth 
approach those on the licker-in at the back. It is obvious, then, that the 
licker-in teeth offer no resistance to the removal of all the fibres upon them. 
The C5^1inder strips the licker-in entirely, taking to itself the fibres in the 
same condition, tangled or straight, in which they lay upon the licker-in. 
As the cylinder revolves, it carries the cotton towards the top and front 
of the machine, past the part where the process of carding in its true sense 
is performed. 

The carding surface consists of a series of flat strips, having a 1 
shaped cross section, and carrying on their flat side wire teeth similar to 
those on the cylinder with their angle of inclination in the opposite direc- 
tion. These flats, so called, are as long as the width of the machine, and 
are supported at either end on a smooth surface shaped to the arc of a 
circle and technically known as a " bend." This is fastened to the fixed 
frame of the machine, but is made adjustable for a purpose to be described 
later. The ends of the flats are attached to endless chains. The chains 
revolve very slowly in the direction shown in Figs. 32 and 33, and move 
the flats from the back to the front of the machine. The shape of a flat 
and its relation to the cylinder are shown at Fig. 36. It will be seen 
that one side of the flat approaches nearer to the cylinder than the other. 
This is made possible by having the bearing surface of the flat and the 
wire surface not parallel. The side of the flat which comes nearer to the 



CARDING 



57 



cylinder is technically called the " heel," and the other side is the " toe." 
The reason for this will be referred to again. 

The action of the flats has been said to be that of combing. Tangled 
masses of fibres on the cylinder, owing to the short vSpace between the 
C3'linder and the flat, come in contact with the flat teeth and are 
untangled. This is possible on account of the relative speed of the cylinder 
and flats, and the inclination of the teeth on both. Short fibres and neps 
either become imbedded at once in the cylinder teeth or are held so loosely 
that the flats catch them, and, as they are thrown forcibly by the revolu- 
tion of the cj'linder, they cling tightly in the teeth of the flats. From both 




Fig. 36. 



the cylinder and the flats the short fibres are later removed as waste. The 
heel and toe arrangement on the individual flats is so that the cotton, as it 
approaches each flat, may be drawn down gradually into the thin place 
between the cylinder and the flat, rather than be thrust into it immediately. 
The theory that the fibres stand a little away from the cylinder surface, 
while passing from one flat to another, underlies this arrangement. The 
flats surround nearly half of the cylinder; the number used is about 110, 
of which 48 are working at a time, while the remainder are passing over 
the top of the machine from front to back. 

Between the last working flat and the organ E in Fig. 33, called a 
" doffer," is fitted a plate known as the front knife plate. Its object is to 
prevent drafts of air from blowing across the cylinder. It acts therefore 



58 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



as a tight cover extending from one side of the machine to the other. 
This plate is adjustable and is set very close to the cylinder surface. The 
passage of any drafts of air across the cylinder surface would tend to 
disturb the straightened fibres and make unevenness. The plate in ques- 
tion succeeds very well in preventing them. 

The cotton carried around by the cylinder is laid upon what is called 
the " doffer." The doffer is a cylindrical shell about 24 or 27 inches in 
diameter, and is constructed similarly to the cylinder. Its surface is 
covered with teeth like those on the cylinder, but somewhat finer. The 




Fig. 49. 



inclination of the teeth is exactly like that of the ones on the cylinder. 
At the point where the two organs are nearly in contact, however, since 
the points are not corresponding points on the two cylinders, the teeth 
are opposed to each other. The doffer revolves ver}^ slowly in the 
opposite direction to that of the cylinder, with a surface speed of about 
60 feet a minute. This speed and the relation between the doffer' s teeth 
and those on the cylinder, allow the swiftly revolving cylinder to deposit 
its cotton on the doffer. There is therefore cotton on the cylinder even 
while it passes from the point of nearness to the doffer around to the 



CARDING 



59 



licker-in. Underneath the cylinder between these two points is placed a 
tin screen or under-casing, similar to the one under the Hcker-in. This 
was incidentally referred to before; it can be clearly seen at C'^ in Fig. 
37, and at U in Fig. 33. It has the same function as the licker-in 
screen and its proper adjustment has much influence upon the amount 
of waste. 

Owing to its slow speed, the doffer receives the cotton in a sheet 
thicker than the one on the cylinder, if there be one on the cylinder at 
all. It is very likely, of course, that there is no continuous sheet on the 
cylinder, but that there are many bare places. On the doffer, however, 
there is a thin sheet. This is carried around on the underside of the 




Fig. 37- 



doffer towards the front of the machine. Here it is stripped off by a 
swiftly oscillating comb called the '* doffer comb." This comb is only a 
few thousandths of an inch distant from the doffer, and makes about 
1,100 vibrations per minute. It removes the cotton effectually in the 
form of a very thin web (see Fig. 38). The shape of the doffer comb 
can be partly seen in this Fig. 38. It is a flat strip with serrations on 
its lower edge; five short bars support it on a shaft which receives a 
reciprocating motion. 

The web is next passed through a trumpet shown at G, Fig. 33, and 
at G, Fig. 38. A detailed view of this trumpet is shown in Fig. 39. 
When the cotton is first started through the card, it has to be trained by 



6o 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



hand into a thin strand and pushed through the trumpet hole. There- 
after the cohesion of the fibres is sufficient to prevent the web from 
breaking as it passes from the doffer. 

After emerging from the trumpet hole the cotton is in a thin rope-like 
strand, but the elasticity of the cotton tends to cause it to expand. To 





Fig. 38. 



Fig. 39. 



counteract this tendency two calender rolls, the top one of considerable 
weight, are placed directly in front of the hole, and through them the 
cotton, now called a " sliver," passes. It is, of course, by them that it is 
pulled through the trumpet hole. 

After leaving the calender roll, the sliver is drawn up as shown in 




Fig. 40. 



62 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



Figs. 32 and 33, to a devise known as a "coiler. " Through a trumpet 
hole in the top of this and between two small calender rolls is the next 
course taken, after which, by means of the coiler itself, the strand is laid 
ver}'^ compactly in a can. 

The coiler and its connections are shown in Fig. 40. An upright 
shaft B is driven from the shaft on the card frame carrying the lower 
calender above mentioned. Near the top of B a pinion E meshes with a 
rack formed on the coiler plate F. The coiler plate is supported by the 
framework R of the coiler itself, and by the revolution of E is made to 
revolve. Through it is an oblique hole, for the passage of the sliver, 
which has previously come through a pair of calender rolls D. The sliver 
leaves the disc and enters the can at the edge, and the coil therefore does 
not fill the whole area of the can. The can itself is made to revolve in 




Fig. 41. 



the opposite direction from the coiler plate. It rests upon a disc O having a 
rack formed on it. By the train of gearing I J K L M N, the disc revolves. 
Since the centre -of the can is not directly beneath the centre of the coiler 
plate, the coils are laid in a can in such a way as to utilize about all of 
the available space, and yet so that when the sliver is later drawn from the 
can, there is likely to be no damage caused. Cans may be tightly filled 
without injury to the cotton. After the card has run a short time the 
can appears to be full, but by the continuous delivery of more the mass 
is forced down so that many times as much cotton as one naturally sup- 
poses may be got into a can. 

The foregoing is a brief description of the passage of the cotton 
through a card with some discussion of the working of the various parts. 
Some of the organs require further treatment. It will therefore be the 



CARDING 



63 



aim of this work next to describe the adjustable parts, and to show the 
manner in which the adjustments are made on one style of machine. 
Other styles maj^ be referred to from time to time, and some of the illus- 
trations show various arrangements peculiar to special makes of cards. 




Fig. 42. 



The feed plate is always made adjustable. It is set so that its further- 
most forward point is a certain distance from, the licker-in teeth. The 
distance cannot be said to be an invariable one. Conditions such as length 
of staple, thickness of the lap feed, and the speed of the feed roll, are the 
important factors. If the distance between the plate and the licker-in 



64 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

teeth is between twelve and fifteen-thousandths of an inch, good results 
can generally be gotten. The exact setting must be obtained by experi- 
ment, in which the factors mentioned above play a very important part. It 
is of the greatest importance that, whatever the setting decided upon may 
be, the two parts in question be the same distance from each other through- 
out the whole width of the machine. The parts are made adjustable at 
both sides of the machine, and by means of thin steel strips or gauges, 
made of definite thicknesses, any desired distance between them can be 
obtained. The thin gauge, a view of which is shown in Fig. 41, of 
the required thickness is slipped between the two parts to be adjusted 
and must fit with the same degree of tightness at every point, before the 
parts are fastened in place. 



_„ INDIAN. 

Fig. 43. 



Fig. 44. 



Fig. 45. S 




AMLRICAN. 



EGYPTIAN. 



The setting screws for the feed plate are shown in Fig. 38, at H, 
and more clearly in Fig. 42, to which reference may be made. H is 
the feed plate bolted to the frame of the card by the bolt /^^ which passes 
through a slot in H and one in the casting G, which is intregal with the 
lap-stands I. G is bolted to the feed plate at h'^ . Attached to the rear 
end of the feed plate is a screw having threaded upon it the two nuts 
h and /^^. By loosening h and tightening A^ the feed plate may be 
pushed forward towards the licker-in, while an opposite turning of the 
two nuts will, of course, pull it away from the licker-in. It is important 
to make the turning of the nuts very slight, and to tighten one exactly 
as much as the other is loosened. 



CARDING 65 

The shape of the forward part and nose of feed plates has been the 
cause of much discussion and experiment. The angle of inclination to 
the horizontal varies on different makes of cards. Some machine builders 
have decided to make a certain shape, and they adopt that shape for all 
classes of work and for all varieties of cotton. Theory, w^hich has been 
carried out with the best practical results, advises the use of feed plates 
differentl}^ constructed for different classes of cotton. In the use of these 
different shapes, the length of the staple has been the deciding factor. 
Three types, adapted to very short, medium and long staples, are shown 
in Figs. 43, 44 and 45, respectively. It will be seen that between 
them the intrinsic difference is the distance betw^een the gripping point 
and the point where the fibres wall be detached. This distance should 
bear some close relation to the length of the fibre. If the distance be too 
great, the fibres will be detached in lump, a proceeding to be avoided as. 
far as possible. Of course it is impossible to avoid this condition entirely. 
If all the fibres were presented to the licker-in in the direction of their 
length, ideal combing would be possible. But more of the fibres are 
probably in a tangled condition, lying in all directions. These are there- 
fore removed bodily from the lap and the combing eficct upon them is 
slight. Yet combing action at this point is very desirable, and every 
possible means is used to secure it. The use of a carding beater on the 
finisher lapper does undoubtedly aid to some extent in getting the fibres 
in a better condition in which to be fed to the licker-in. 

Formerly two feed rolls were used, but the advantages of a feed plate 
over them are so great that it is now in universal use. Its chief 
advantage is.that it prevents the cotton from being detached from the lap 
in tufts. With feed rolls, the distance from the point of contact to the 
point where the licker-in detached the cotton, was so great, that any 
combing action was not often possible. With the feed plate shaped as 
experience has taught it ought to be, the teeth of the licker-in pass 
through the end of the lap, do not detach the fibres in such large lumps 
as formerly, but exert a sort of combing action. 

In Fig. 34 the mote knives B-'' and B^ can be seen to be supported 
in slots in a bracket b- . There is one of these brackets at each 
side of the machine. The lower edges of the knives rest upon the screws 
b~ b^ , by adjusting which the knives can be set at any desired distance 
from the periphery of the licker-in. The bracket b'- is attached to the 
licker-in box by means of a bolt b^ passing through a horizontal slot in 
5 



66 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



the downward hanging' part of the licker-in box, and a vertical slot in the 
bracket. The bracket can therefore be moved in any direction, enabling 
the mote knives to be set at any desired angle. Experience has shown 
that a good setting for them is at a distance of about fifteen-thousandths 
of an inch from the licker-in. Here, too, the same factors mentioned in 
connection with the feed plate have much influence; the cleanhness of the 
cotton in use, however, is as important an one as any. 

The licker-in screen is adjustable to the licker-in independently of 
the movement of the cylinder screen. The bolts c '^^ r-^' in Fig. 34, are 




Fig. 46. 



fitted in slots. By loosening them, the licker-in screen can be swung 
around, and set at any desired distance from the licker-in. A distance of 
.022 of an inch will generally give good results. 

In Figs. 32 and 34 may be seen at P a plate known as the 
" back knife plate." Its function is to prevent air drafts and to prevent 
the fibres from standing far away from the cylinder surface. The lower 
edge is sharp, like a knife, and reaches almost to the point where the 
cylinder strips the licker-in. It is made adjustable and is usually set at 
a distance of about .017 of an inch from the surface of the cylinder. In 
Fi^>-. 46 the means for adjustment may be seen.- The plate itself is not 



CARDING 



67 



shown, but it will be readily understood that it is tightly bolted to the 
make-up piece B'. B" is bolted to the portion d^ of the licker-in box 
casting at I)-' ^^". By loosening ^" /^' ", B" may be swung around on 
B^^ as a movable fulcrum, and set at the desired distance from the cylin- 
der surface. Of course this adjustment must be made with the licker-in 
removed, in order that the gauge may be slipped between the plate and 
the cylinder. Moreover, an adjustment of this knife plate is scarcely ever 
necessary after it is once properl}" set. 

The licker-in itself has to be set carefully at a fixed distance from 
the cylinder. A good setting is .010 of an inch. The means of adjust- 





FlG 4S. 



ment may be clearly seen in Fig. 46. The screw d is attached to the front 
part of the licker-in box casting, and tightly secured by a lock-nut. The 
forward end of the screw passes through a portion of the fixed frame of 
the card. By turning the nuts d'^ ■'' d'^* the licker-in ma}^ be mov^ed 
towards or away from the cylinder. It is important to notice at this 
point that by the adjustment of the licker-in, the surrounding parts are 
also moved. Therefore if these parts have once been accurately set, 
their relations to the fixed parts always remain the same. Those parts 
which move with the licker-in are the mote-knives, whose bracket is 
bolted to d^ at d'' , the knife plate, attached to licker-in box as above 



68 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

described, and the undercasings, attached to the casting c\ which in turn 
is bolted to the licker-in box casting at r^ -. 

In Fig. 34, r' represents the end of a tube which extends across 
the screen from one side of the machine to the other. Its object is to 
strengthen the screen and to provide means for its adjustment as follows: 
Into each end of it is fitted a stud c^ in Fig. 47. This stud passes 
through the casting c^ and has a thread on its outer end to receive the 
lock nut <f^^. It will thus be seen that the cylinder screen and conse- 
quently the licker-in screen, which is bolted to it, is supported at each 
side by the studs d\ In the tube f- a shoulder is formed against which 
c^ can seat itself. Any sidewise movement of the screen may be made by 
tightening or loosening the \\\\\. c^^ and by screwing <:V in the direction 
desired. The more important adjustment is, however, the bringing of 
the screen towards or awa}^ from the cylinder. Evidently this adjustment 
may be made by moving the casting c'^ through which c^^ passes. Means 
for moving said casting are shown in Fig. 47. B}^ loosening c^- the 
casting c^ will be made free to move. By screwing down r^^ which 
passes through c^ and rests against the frame work of the card, the casting, 
and hence the top edge of the under-casing, may be raised. A loosening 
of c^^ will of course allow the screen to be lowered by its own weight. 
The screws c^"" c^^ serve to move the casting and screen forward or 
backward. A good setting for the screen in question is at a distance of 
about .022 of an inch from the cylinder. 

In Fig. 37 it may be seen that the cylinder screen is in two parts, 
known as the *' back screen " and the "front screen." Both sections 
have slots at d'^ into which fits the ear d^ , which extends inward from a 
casting on the outside of the frame (see Fig. 48 and Fig. 32). By 
loosening the riut on d'^ ^ which fastens said casting to the frame w^ork of 
the card, and by raising or lowering d'^-, which is threaded into the 
casting and rests against the bottom of the card frame, the bottom of 
both sections of the screen may be raised or lowered. Lateral adjustment 
of the front section to the cylinder maj^ be made at d'^ '' in Fig. 32. In 
Fig. 37 the four slots shown in the screen at S are to allow a gauge to 
be slipped between the cylinder wire and the screen. 

Reference may next be made to the means employed for adjusting 
the flats. The question may already have occurred to the reader why it 
is necessary to furnish means for adjusting the various organs. The 
most important reason is, that after time the wire teeth upon the 



CARDING 69 

cylinder, doffer and flats become dull with use and require sharpening. 
Sharpening is done by means of emery which reduces the length of the 
teeth. In order that the organs may always bear the same relation to 
each other, some opportunity for changing their position is necessary. 
The cylinder is the organ to which others are adjusted. 

It is important that the surface which supports the flats shall always 
be concentric with the cylinder. The supporting surface was previously 
referred to as "the bend" and may be seen at X in Fig. 32. Many 
methods of constructing this bend have been adopted, but they all depend 
upon the principle that perfect concentricity with the cylinder must 
always be retained without regard to the amount ground from the cylinder 
teeth, or from the flat teeth. The result is that the bend must in all 
cases be flexible. It is obvious that if the flats were supported on a rigid 




Fig. 50. 

arch concentric with the cylinder, any lowering of said rigid arch to 
bring the flats nearer to the cylinder, would lower the centre of the arch 
so that it would not longer be concentric with the cylinder. The effect 
of this movement would be that the flats at the front and back would be 
farther from the cylinder surface than those at the top. Hence to make 
it possible for all the flats to be an equal distance from the cylinder, a 
bend which can be bent to conform to the cylinder surface must be used. 
We therefore have the expression " flexible bend." 

The flexible bend seen in Fig. 32 is a common type and its manner 
of adjustment is a typical one. It may be seen to be adjustable at five 
points. The adjusting screws at the middle and the two end points are 
firmly attached to the bend itself, the other two act as supports. In 
adjusting this type of bend it is customary first to remove one flat from 
those which are not in action. The flats are then revolved manually by 



■o 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



means of a wrench applied in a manner to be hereinafter shown until the 
space in the chain reaches the middle setting point. The lock nuts j/ are 
then all loosened. A gauge such as is shown in Fig. 50 is next put between 
the heel of one of the fiats on one side of the space and the cylinder. By 
loosening one of the setting nuts and by tightening the other the same 
amount, the correct distance between the fiat and the cylinder at this point 
can be gotten. The same process is repeated at the two points on each 
side of the middle one. Finally the two ends are adjusted, after which 
the nuts_y are tightened, and the bend locked in place. There are of 
course two bends, one on each side of the machine; consequently each has 




Fig. 51. 



to be adjusted. A good setting distance is .010 of an inch; the amount 
being passed through the card has, however, a very important influence 
upon the axact setting. 

At Fig. 51 the sectional view of one of the setting places for the bend 
is shown. A represents the flexible bend on which the end of the fiat I 
rests. The stud B is secured to the bend, and passes through a portion 
of the fixed framework C. On B are threaded the adjusting nuts E and 
F. The bend is locked in position by a lock nut D. The very small space 
between the bend and the clothing on the fiats and cylinder can be seen 
at G. 

At Figs. 52, 53, is shown the kind of bend used by the American 



CARDING 



71 



Machine Compan\\ E is the flexible conical bend upon whhic the end of 
the flat H rests. The flexible bend E bears upon a rio^id conical bend D, 
which in turn is supported b}' the framework G. The inner side of E also 
rests against a part of G. The screw eye passes through the conical rigid 
bend D, and has threaded upon it the toothed nut C, and the index nut 
A. To adjust the flats, a setting ke}^ B with fluted teeth is inserted so 
as to mesh with C. By loosening A and turning B, the nut C may be 
pressed against D. moving it outward. The weight of the chain of flats 




I-IG. 52. 



resting upon E forces it down and conforms it to a smaller arc. The 
divisions on A represent thousandths of an inch; hence by turning the 
nuts the distance of one division, the flats can be raised or lowered by that 
amount. In this case also there are five setting points on each side of 
the card. 

On some makes of cards it is possible to adjust the cylinder centre. 
One appliance for making that adjustment is shown in Fig. 54, and will 
be readily understood therefrom. 



72 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

As the front of the card is approached, the next part requiring adjust- 
ment is the front knife plate. This is really in three parts, as can be seen 
at Figs. 55 and 56 at E^, E"^ and E. E and E^ are both bolted to a 
make-up piece E'-, while E"^ is a hinged door, by opening which access 
ma}^ be had to the cylinder for the purpose of cleaning and grinding. The 
make-up piece E" in Fig. 55 is pivoted at <?'"* to the casting E'^ which 
may slide in ways on the framework of the card. The plates E and E^ 




Fig. 



are jointly and separately adjustable. By means of the nuts e^ and e'- 
the casting E'^, and consequently the make-up piece and two knife plates, 
ma}^ all be moved towards or away from the cylinder. After each plate 
has been properly adjusted, they both ma}^ be moved together in this 
manner; at the same time the nuts e^ and e'- are the only means for adjust- 
ing the lower plate. This is commonly set about .017 of an inch from the 
cylinder. 



CARDING 



73 



The upper plate can be independently set and it regulates to a certain 
extent the amount of waste which may cling to and be removed by the 
flats. The nearer it is set to the cylinder, the smaller will be the amount 
of waste on the fiats and vice versa. The method of adjusting it can be 
explained best b}' reference to Fig. 56. The positions of the plate are 
there shown, one being in dotted lines. Through the make-up piece E"- is 
passed a screw e^\ the end of which rests against a casting E''. Through 
an ear in the make-up piece is passed a second screw c'\ which also rests 
against the casting E"^. By loosening <?'' and tightening*?'' or vice versa, the 
plate ma}' be brought towards or pushed awa}^ from the cylinder. Since 
the make-up piece is pivoted at e^ , a movement of E^ in one direction will 
have the opposite effect in a very slight degree upon E. 




Fig. 54. 



The doffer is adjusted to the cylinder by screws and nuts similar to 
those used for setting the licker-in. These may be seen in Fig:. 32. Its 
distance from the cylinder should be about .007 of an inch. The doffer 
comb ma}^ be similarly adjusted to the doffer. Its distance should be about 
.009 of an inch. 

The manner in which most of the parts of the card receive their power 
may be seen in the plan in Fig. 57. The cylinder receives its power 
from the line shaft. The licker-in is driven directly from the cylinder by 
a crossed belt. A pulley on the other end of the licker-in transmits to a 
pulley just beneath the doffer. On the shaft with this pulley, which can be 
clearly seen at D in Fig. 32 in dotted lines, is a small pinion meshing with 
a large gear wheel on the doffer shaft. The small pinion just mentioned 



74 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



is called the " doffer change gear." From the large gear on the doffer, 
power is transmitted by the train shown in Fig. 57 to the card calender 
rolls. Between the shaft of the lower calender roll and the coiler, the 
connection may be seen in Fig. 40. On the opposite end of the doffer 
shaft to the large doffer wheel, a bevel gear called the " doffer bevel " 
transmits power to what is called the " side shaft bevel." On the end of 
the side shaft near the feed roll a small bevel gear called the " draft change 
gear" drives a large " plate bevel " on the end of the feed roll. The lap 
roll receives its power from the other end of the feed roll by the train of 
gears shown. 




Fig. 55. 



There are in all this driving mechanism two gears which can be and 
are changed. One, the draft gear, changes the relation between the 
surface speed of the delivering roll and the surface speed of the feeding 
roll, or in other words the draft. This gear is marked in the drawing, 
and the effect of changing it will readily be understood. If a draft gear 
be replaced by a larger one, evidently the feed roll and lap roll will run 
faster, while the speed of the delivering roll will remain the same. More 
cotton will be fed to the machine within the same length of time; hence 
less drawing will take place. The draft is therefore decreased by the 



CARDING 



/D 



substitution of a larger gear for the one in use. The opposite is of course 
true if a smaller gear be used. If a lap of the same weight per 3'ard be 
used in both cases, with a large gear, the weight per 3'ard of the sliver 
delivered b}- the card will be greater than if a smaller gear were used. 

The other change gear, called the doffer change gear, is changed 
when it is desired to alter the production of the card without affecting the 
draft. A larger doffer change gear would increase the speed of all parts 
which this gear drives. Reference to the diagram of gearing and the 




Fig. 56. 



accompan}ing description will show that the doffer change wheel drives 
the delivering roll through a train of gears commencing with the large 
doffer wheel, and b}' another train running from the doffer back towards 
the feed roll, it drives the feeding parts. Consequently a larger gear 
would merely increase the speed of all these parts, thus feeding and 
delivering more yards of lap and sliver than a smaller gear would, while 
the weight per 3'ard of the sliver delivered would not be changed. 




Fig. 57. 



CARDING 



77 



To summarize we may say that an increase in the size of the draft 
gear decreases the draft, and an increase in the size of the doffer change 




Fig. 58. 



gear increases the number of yards produced in a given length of time, 
without affecting the draft. 

In Figs. 58 and 59 the driving mechanism for the fiats is shown. 




Fig. 59. 



A pulley shown on the shaft ^- is connected with a small pulley on the 
cylinder by a belt. Integral with this pulley is a worm which drives the 
worm wheel shown, on the shaft with which is the worm seen in the 



78 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

drawing. This in turn drives the larger worm wheel ^<^'''. On the shaft 
with this are two sprocket wheels, one on each side of the machine. 
These engage with a chain of flats. In Fig. 59 on the shaft ^ - is seen 
a cam which gives an oscillating motion to the compound lever o'\ 
fulcrumed at o-^\ A comb ^' is attached to one end of the lever and 
stretches across the machine. It is set very near the teeth on the flat, 
and b}^ its motion strips them of their waste. They are then further 
cleaned b}' the revolving spiral brush G, the driving of which is readily 
understood from Fig. 58. ^Ms a brush to clean fly from the bearing 
surface of the flats. ^^^ is a square end of the oblique shaft for the 
reception of a wrench by which the flats may be revolved manuall}^ In 
order to turn them it is of course necessary to remove the pulley and 
worm on the shaft g-- . 

CALCULATIONS 

There are several calculations to be made on a card, of w^hich those 
for drafts, draft-constant and production are the most important. All of 
any consequence whatever will be given, for perhaps through them a 
better understanding of the principles of all cotton spinning calculations 
may be obtained. 

I. — To find the total draft on a card when all the gears including the 
draft change gear are known, use rule given in preceding chapter. An 
example in w^hich the gears shown in Fig. 57, and a 20 draft gear are 
used, is given below. 

Total draft equals 

48 X 120 X 40 X 214 X 27 X 2 

^ ^ -=81.24 

17x20x45x21x17x6 

The intermediate drafts which follow are found by considering as the 
feeding roll the first roll which touches the cotton, and as the delivering 
roll the last one which touches the cotton. 

2. — Draft between lap roll and feed roll= 

4S^9 -=5S8 

17X4X6 

The diameter of the feed roll is 2^ inches. 



CARDING 79 

3. — Draft between feed roll and licker-in= 

120X40X214X 18X9X 4 

20 X 45 X 24 X 4 X 9 "^ 

In this case it is necessar}-, as in all others, to find the relation 
between the surface speed of the delivering roll and of the feeding roll. 
Here, however, to trace the connection between the two parts in question 
the wa}' is less direct than before. It must be remembered, however, 
that it is possible to calculate the draft between any two points which are 
connected, no matter how round about the connection may be. It will be 
seen that some pulle3^s and the doffer change gear come into the above 
calculation. 

4. — Draft between the licker-in and cylinder= 

7 X 50 
-'- ^-=2.1605 

5. — Draft between cylinder and doffer= 

18 X 4 X 24 X 27 

-^ '-=:,o^-.i6 

7x18x214x50 

Note that in this case the draft is less than one, which of course 
means that one yard is not drawn out enough to be one 3'ard; in other 
words, it is condensed into less than a 3'ard. i\ny draft less than one 
therefore means a condensation. 

6. — Draft between doffer and card calender rolls^ 

2 14 X ^ 

— ^ ^=1.1322 

21 X 27 

7. — Draft between card calender rolls and calender rolls in coiler= 

'' ^ ' 1.05S8 

8. — Total draft equals the product of all the intermediate drafts= 
1.058S X 856 X 2.1605 X .0346 X 1. 1322 X 1.0588=81.24, which is the 
same as found above. 

The examples above given show how the draft at all points on a card 



So COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

ma}' be figured when all the gearing and the dimensions of the various 
parts are known. In actual practice it is customary for one to determine 
not so often the actual draft that a card is introducing, as, first, the draft 
which it is desirable to have it introduce into the cotton, and second, the 
necessary draft gear to produce the desired draft. 
The necessar}^ draft ma}' be found in two ways. 

I. — When the weight per yard of sliver which it is desired to produce, 
and also the weight per yard of lap to be used are known, divide the 
weight per yard of lap by the weight per yard of the sliver. Some modi- 
fication of this rule must be made and practiced, since the card produces 
some waste. The amount varies somewhat on different cards, and can be 
accurately determined only by experiment. The waste is probably about 
5 per cent. Therefore a deduction of 5 per cent, should be made from 
the weight per yard of the lap. 

Example. — One desires to produce a 55 grain sliver from an 11 oz. lap. 

II oz. = 4812.5 grains. 
.05 



240.625 grains deduction for waste. 

4812.5 
240,625 



4571.875 grains theoretical amount fed. 
4571.875 ^ 55 = 83.12 draft required. 

2. — In the second place, if the weight per yard of the sliver alone be 
known, any draft between 70 and 120 may be determined upon, and from 
that the necessary weight per yard of the lap wanted may be found. 
About as good results maybe gotten from the use of a high draft as 
from the use of a low one, but the limits of 70 and 120 are seldom, if 
ever, passed. 

The necessary gear to produce any desired draft may be found by 
substituting the draft desired for the draft gear in the calculation for draft. 

Example. — Find the draft gear required to produce a draft of 100 on 
a card having the gearing shown in Fig. 37. Calculation r was as follows: 



48 X 120 X 40 X 214 X 27 X 2 

17 X 20X45X 21x17x6 

draft gear 



draft. 



CARDING 8 1 

Substituting loo in the place of the draft gear we have 

48 X 120 X 40 X 2 r4 X 27 X 2 

-^^ —-^ = 16.2 

17x100x45x21x17x6 

Answer, 16 teeth. 

Since such a calculation is rather long, it has been found convenient 
to obtain a number which can alwa3's be used in finding the draft gear, 
when any change may be wanted after a card has once been started. This 
number always remains the same, so long as no gears except the draft 
gear are changed. It is called the "draft constant," and is found by 
carrying out the example for total draft with the omission of the draft 
gear. Since all the gears except the draft gears are not changed, the 
value of the calculation with the draft gear omitted will always be 
constant. In the case taken above the constant is as follows: 

48x120x40x214x27x2 

= 1624.8^ draft constant. 

17 X 45 x 21 x 17 X 6 

It will be seen that in the calculation the draft gear came in the 
denominator, hence the rest of the example for draft is divided by it. 
We may therefore derive the following simple formulae for the use of 
the draft constant: 

^ ^ draft constant 
Draft 



Draft gear 



draft gear 

draft constant 
draft 



A' second way of determining the necessary gear to produce a desired 
draft is by the use of proportion. This method can be used only when 
the draft which a certain gear produces and the draft desired are known. 
Since a larger gear produces a smaller draft, the proportion is an 
inverse one. 

Example . — If a draft gear with 20 teeth produces a draft of 80, find 
the gear required to produce a draft of 90. 

90 : 80 : : 20 : X 
90 X == 1600 
Whence x =i 17.6 Answer, 18 teeth. 



82 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

Expressed in words, the rule is as follows: — 

To find the necessary gear, multiply the draft in use by the gear in 
use, and divide this product by the draft wanted. 

If the weight per yard of the lap be not changed, but only the weight 
per yard of the sliver produced, the draft gear needed may be found by 
proportion. Since, however, a larger draft gear increases the amount fed 
into the machine in a given length of time, while the number of yards 
delivered remains the same, each yard delivered must weigh more. The 
proportion is in this case a direct one. 

Example. — Find the gear to produce a 6o- grain sliver, if a 17 gear 
produces a 56-grain sliver, the same weight of lap being used in both cases. 

56 : 60 : : 17 : X 
56 X = J020 
Whence x = 18.2 Answer, 18 teeth. 

Expressed in words, the last rule is as follows: — 

To find the desired gear, multiply the weight per yard of the sliver 
wanted by the gear in use, and divide this product by the weight per yard 
of the sliver being made. If the weight per yard of the lap is also to 
be changed, the two drafts must be found, and the first proportion may 
then be applied. 

The production of a card is generally stated in pounds per day of 10 
hours, or in pounds per week of 60 hours. Of course, the actual produc- 
tion of a card in inches is the surface speed of the coiler calender rolls for 
the length of time that the machine runs. It is customar}^ and suflQcientl}^ 
accurate to compute the production as the surface speed of the doffer, and 
then to make -an allowance for stopping and for waste. A card produces 
.about 15"^ less than the theoretical production. 

GRINDING AND STRIPPING 

After a card has beeen running a little while the wire teeth on the 
cylinder, doffer and flats become so clogged up with short fibres, neps, 
etc., that it cannot do its work properly. It has therefore to be cleaned, 
and very often, too, about three times a day; even more often than that if 
the production is especially large. The operation of removing the waste 
from the card wire is called stripping. It is quickly and easily performed 
bv means of a circular wire brush. The teeth on the brush are similar 



CARDING 



83 



in shape to those on the c^'linder except that the}' are longer and more 
coarsel}' set. The brush is placed in the brackets shown at e^^^ in 
Fig. 55, after the door has been opened. The brush, or stripping roll, 
as it is more commonl}' called, is so placed that its teeth, when it is made 
to revolve in the opposite direction from the cylinder, will strike the 
cylinder teeth at the back, i. e., at the part where the knee is. The 
brackets are adjustable so that the teeth on the stripper ma}^ be made to 
enter the cylinder teeth an}* desired distance. This distance should be 
about two-thirds of the length of the C34inder tooth. If allowed to enter 
more deepl}^ they may cause the waste to become more deeply imbedded, 
or they may injure the foundation of the clothing itself. 




Fig. 60. 



On the end of the stripping roll, at the side of the card carrying the 
driving pulleys, is placed a grooved pulley. This is connected by a 
crossed band with the large loose pulley on the main shaft of the card. 

To perform the operation of stripping, the driving belt of the card is 
moved by hand from the fast to the loose pulley, and the card allowed to 
stop. At the same time the side shaft bevel is thrown out of gear with 
the doffer bevel by means of a handle at the side of the card provided for 
the purpose. In this manner the feed roll and lap roll are stopped. 
Another handle at the front of the card is also turned, to throw one of 
the gears in the train driving the coiler out of gear, thus stopping the 



84 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

coiler and card calender rolls. When the card has come to a standstill 
and the stripping roll has been placed in position and has been connected 
by a band with the loose pulley, the cylinder is slowly started b}^ hand, 
while at the same time the stripping roll is revolving very fast. The 
difference in speed and the relative inclination of the teeth make it 
possible for the stripper to take all the cotton on the cylinder to itself. 
When all the waste has been removed, the stripping roll is quickly 
removed, care being taken not to allow it to stop moving before the 
cylinder does. To strip the doffer, a similar operation is gone through 
with; the stripping roll is placed in the brackets in the same manner as 
before, and is started up, stopped and removed just as previously described. 

The stripping roll itself is cleaned on what is called a "stripping 
box." One is shown in Fig. 60. Directly beneath the stripping roll 
which is placed in the bearings shown, is a fiat strip of wood covered with 
clothing like that on the stripping roll. The two sets of teeth engage 
with each other and by rapid movements of the stripping roll, first in one 
direction and then in the other, all the cotton is easily taken from the 
stripper. 

The clothing on the flats is stripped automatically, as they reach the 
front of the card. An oscillating comb previously referred to in connec- 
tion with Fig. 58, is set a very short distance from the edge of the flats, 
and by its upward and downward movement it pulls the waste away from 
the flats in strips. As the flats pass up over the top of the card they are 
further cleaned by the spiral brush seen in Fig. 59. The "strips," as 
the waste is called, is wound up on a stick, which gets its motion from 
frictional contact with the moving flats. 

In addition to cleaning, the clothing on a card has to be ground. 
After about a month's wear the wire teeth become too dull to comb the 
cotton properly, but a little grinding with emer}'- speedily brings them 
back into their right condition. Two types of rollers are used for grinding, 
one known as the dead roll, and the other called a traverse grinder. The 
traverse grinder is most commonly used on cylinders and doffers, and the 
long dead roll on the flats. 

The operation of grinding is performed as follows: The card is first 
cleaned very carefully. The belts used to drive the licker-in, doffer and 
flats are removed, as well as the pulley and worm shown in Fig. 58. The 
doffer is then connected directly with the cylinder by a belt running from 
the pulley which had previously been used to drive the licker-in to a 



CARDING 



85 



pulley on the doffer. This belt is an open belt, so that the doffer must 
revolve during grinding in the same direction as the cylinder, the reason 
of course being that the teeth on each are inclined in the same direction. 
The main driving belt is then changed for another which will cause the 
cylinder to revolve in a direction opposite to its normal one. The grinding 
roll is placed in the brackets provided for it, and has the grooved pulley 
on its end connected with a grooved pulley on the cylinder by an open 
belt. A second grinding roll is placed over the doffer and connected with 
the cylinder in a similar manner. i\fter all the above named operations 




Fig. 61. 



have been done, the brackets supporting the grinding rolls are adjusted 
and the grinding rolls set by means of a thin gauge as near to the 
cylinder and doff er as possible, without being allowed to touch. Each roll 
is then set a little nearer, being allowed to touch the wire very lightly. 
The closeness of the contact is determined by sound and some little prac- 
tice is needed before the proper setting distance can be obtained. In no 
cases should the contact be close enough to allow sparks to fly, and it is a 
good general rule that light grinding at frequent intervals is much prefer- 
able to heavy grinding at longer intervals 



Fig. bi shows a card ready 



for grinding. 



CHAPTER V 



DRAWING 



On especially high-class work, whose market price warrants the addi- 
tional expense incurred, it is customary to use a process known as 
" combing." When combing is not used, the machine which follows the 
card is either a "railway head" or a "drawing frame." There are, 




Fig. 62. 



indeed, two systems in vogue, to which the names "American" and 
"English" have been given. In the former the railway head follows 
the card, and after it are used two sets of drawing frames, i.e., two 
machines identical in construction and working, performing exactl}" the 
samci process. In the latter, three sets of drawing frames are used with 

(86) 



DRAWING 87 

on railway heads. The modern railway head is practically a drawing 
frame with a certain characteristic device. It will be described after the 
theory and principles of the' drawing, as well as a description of the 
drawing frame, have been given. 

If the carding machine works properly, it should produce a sliver 
fairly free from neps, dirt, and all foreign matter, and with comparatively 
few short fibres remaining therein. The fibres themselves are not perfectly 
parallel. In fact, to one examining the web coming from a doffer, they 
will appear not to approximate that condition very nearly. They certainly 
are not tangled and matted, and even if some are crossed, they are in such 
a condition that a pulling upon them in the direction of their length will 
reduce them to parallel order. It is one duty of the drawing frame to 
perform this parallelization. The reason wh}^ parallelization is necessary 
needs little if any discussion, if the kind of thread to be produced be borne 
in mind. Cotton yarn, except in its debased use when mixed with wool 
to deceive the trusting public, should be strong, smooth, and as nearly 
cylindrical as possible. It is very evident that if man}' fibres may be got 
into a cross section, the strand will be stronger than if few were there. It 
is equally true that the greatest number can only be obtained when the 
fibres are parallel. A parallel arrangement is also obviousl^^ conducive 
to smoothness and cylindricality. Therefore, an attempt to make the 
fibres parallel is made at the drawing frame. When a comber is used 
before a drawing frame it usurps this function, and leaves the drawing 
frame only its second duty to perform, namely, that of producing a sliver 
more uniform in weight and diameter than the one fed to it. 

The action and construction of a drawing frame are simple; its impor- 
tance is very great. By it the cotton is brought to a condition in which 
the fibres lend themselves to the gradually reducing processes, which 
decrease the size of the strand from one nearly an inch in diameter to one 
of very great fineness. At this point, too, the last opportanit}' for 
correcting on a large scale the inequalities still existing in the sliver is 
given. Four sets of rollers perform the work of drawing. The four sets 
of rollers revolve at gradually accelerated speeds, the front rolls having a 
surface speed about six times as great as the back rolls. Six slivers are 
usually fed in together side by side, forming a rather heavy, wide strand. 
By the action of the back rolls this heavy strand is compressed and passed 
on to the second set of rolls. Since these go at a speed about 1.25 times 
that of the back roll, they draw the strand on, and of course reduce its 



88 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

thickness. At the same time the fibres are, by this very process of drawing, 
made gradually to approach parallel order. The exact action of the rolls 
demands a few words. In the first place, the rolls are sufficiently small 
to allow the distance from the centre of one set to the centre of the next 
to be nearly as short as the length of the fibres being worked. They are 
at the same time made as large as possible consistent with the above con- 
dition. Being adjustable, various sets may be fixed at any desired distance 
from the next one, which distance must always exceed the length of the 
fibres. Such a state of affairs shows that as every fibre passes from one 
set of rolls to the next, it occupies one of three general positions ; first, 
it is held at one end by the back set of rolls, while its forward end is free 
from all action except that of the contiguous fibres upon it. They are 
being drawn forward b}' the second set of rollers; hence they slide away 
from the fibres still in the grip of the back rolls, and by this very sliding 
action they tend to straighten out the free end of every fibre held by the 
back rolls. The second position occupied by each fibre is one in which 
neither end is held. Fibres lying entirel}^ between two sets of rolls have 
two influences acting upon them, one tending to hold them back, and 
another tending to draw them forward. The fibres held b}' the slowly 
revolving back rolls exert the retarding action, while those in the nip of 
the more swiftly moving second set exercise the onward pull. The effect 
of each is to straighten both ends of the free fibres. The third position 
is obviously that of being held in the grip of the second set, while the 
back ends of the fibres are free, and are acted upon by the retarding 
influence of the surrounding fibres. These three conditions recur between 
the second and third sets of rolls, and between the third set and the front 
rolls. The drawing between the third set and the front rolls exceeds that 
at all other points, the increase in draft being gradual. While the paral- 
lelizing effect has been described with reference to the two back sets, it 
is not as great there as between the forward sets. At first the strand made 
of six slivers combined is rather heav}', therefore in order to avoid rupture 
a small draft only is permissible. A typical arrangement of drafts is 1.25 
between back and second, 1.75 between second and third, and 2.75 between 
third and front rolls. The principle of a small draft accompanying a 
heavy strand is carried through all the processes of cotton spinning. 

One important element in the theory of drawing is the distance from 
centre to centre of the different sets of rollers. No rule for the exact 
setting can be laid down, but there are certain underlying principles 



DRAWING 89 

which, coupled with experience and good judgment, must bring satisfactory- 
results. The setting distance depends upon first, the length of staple, 
second, the amount of draft, third, the size of the strand, and fourth, the 
character of cotton used. With long staples the settings must be wider 
than with short staples. With high draft, all settings must be wider than 
with low or eas}^ drafts. Thick slivers demand wide settings. The 
harsher and tougher the fibre, the wider the setting. These general 
principles appl}^ to the four sets of rolls. The various sets are, however, 
not all put at the same distance apart. It is a good rule always to set the 
front and third set about y^ or between that and \ of an inch further apart 
than the length of the staple; the third and next to the back set about ^ 
or /tt-, and the second and back y*j^ or j of an inch. The difference in ihe 
thickness of the strand at the different points is the main influence upon 
these relative settings. Although opportunity for the adjustment of the 
rolls is offered, 3'et if a change be made from long Sea Island cotton to 
very short American, it would be imposjsible to bring the rollers near 
enough together ; in which case smaller rollers must be used. Such a great 
change is not likely often to occur in the same mill; it is mentioned here 
merely to show that small rolls accompany short staples and vice versa. 
The effect of too narrow setting would be breakage of the fibres. The 
short broken fibres would appear in the finished ^arn as little bunches. 
Such yarn is said to be " cockled." With too wide settings the drawing 
would be uneven and the amount of waste would be increased. 

The second function, evening, is a very important one; all important 
on the second and third frames, and on all when the comber is not used. 
It is made possible by feeding six slivers to each portion of the machine 
from which one sliver is to be delivered. It has been previousl}^ shown 
that drafts of 1.25, 1.75 and 2.75 are introduced, which give a total draft 
of about 6. The resulting sliver is therefore about the same weight per 
yard as each one fed. The principle involved is that of doubling, to 
which reference was made in connection with the feeding of four laps to 
an intermediate or to a finisher lapper. It is undeniably a fact that 
doubling, so called, does materially aid in producing an uniform strand. 
The probability is that heavy places will offset light places more often than 
two heavy places or two light places will come together. Even more 
important than this is the fact that whatever inequality may exist in any 
one sliver fed to the drawing frame, will be reduced at its first passage 
to an inequalit}' onl}' ^ as great. This is, of cour.se, due to the drawing 



90 



COTTON YARX MANUFACTURE 



out of six slivers without materially changing the weight per yard. By 
the second passage through a drawing frame the inequality is further 
reduced six times. It is then only ^jr as great as originally, and after 
leaving the third head, it is only ^jjr of what it was at first. It will 
be seen, therefore, that three processes of drawing have much influence 
upon the evenness and weight and size of the strand of cotton. 

In Fig. 62 the front of the drawing frame is shown. Places will be 
seen for the reception of six cans. Each can receives one drawn sliver, 
and the place where the sliver is delivered is called a '*deliver3\" A 
group of deliveries constitutes what is called a "head." A head of six 




Fig. 6.^ 



deliveries is shown. The sectional view in Fig. 63 may best be referred 
to in connection with the following description: The cans of sliver are 
placed at the back of the machine, six cans behind the portion from which 
one sliver is to be delivered. Each sliver is drawn out of its can through 
a guide shown at A. It then passes over a spoon-shaped lever B, Six 
of these spoon levers are placed side by side, and after passing them, the 
six slivers enter the back rolls together. After passing through the four 
sets of rolls the thin sheet is formed into a strand by the trumpet hole at 
E, then passes between two calender rolls, into a coiler, and is then coiled 
into a can as on the card. 



DRAWING 



91 



The four bottom rolls are made of steel and fluted longitudinally on 
their "bosses." A view of the rollers is shown in Figs. 64, 65 and 
66. In Fig. 64 the bosses of the bottom roll are seen at b. There are 
as many bosses as there are deliveries in the frame. ' ' Necks ' ' n are formed 
at intervals and upon these the roller revolves. These necks rest in brass 
steps in roller stands, an end view of which can be seen in Fig. 63. The 
bottom rolls appear to be continuous and to extend the entire length of 
the machine. Actually they are made in short sections, and fitted together 
by a square socket joint as shown in Fig. 66. The separate sections are 
driven together when the machine is erected, and when the rolls are 
removed later for periodic scouring, each lower roll is taken out in one 



CO Q 



Fig. 64. 



Fig. 65 




continuous length. The various roller stands are bolte/i to the "roller 
beam " R by the bolts N (Fig. 63). By loosening N the stands may be 
moved to allow the distance between any two sets of rollers to be 
regulated. 

The top rolls are short as shown in the drawing, and rest directh' on 
top of the bottom roll. They are made of cast iron, and have their bosses 
covered with a carefully prepared woolen cloth, and that with thin smooth 
leather. Hooks y (Fig. 63 ) rest over the arbors of the top rolls (see 
Fig. 64 ) and have hanging from their lower end the stirrups x which in 
turn support the cast iron hooks W . -Hanging from W' are the weights 
W. These can be plainly seen again "in Fig. 63. Their function is to 



92 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

hold the top roll firmly in contact with the bosses of the bottom rolls. 
Since the top rolls receive their motion by friction only, the weights must 
be sufficiently heavy to insure a tight grip upon the cotton, and effectually 
to prevent slipping. The ends of the top rolls <: (Fig. 64) rest against 
the upward extending sides of the roller stands, and are thereby prevented 
from slipping forward or backward. 

There are in use three general types of top rolls, known as the 
"solid roll," the " shell roll " and the " metallic roll." The first two 
types are both leather rolls, and are undoubtedl}^ most extensively used 
at present. The solid roll is the oldest type of all. It is made of cast 
iron and shaped as shown in Fig. <^4. Its boss is covered with finely 
pitched circumferential grooves, which form a rough yet regular surface 
to which is glued a specially prepared cloth. The quality and character 
of the cloth vary from shoddy with a cotton face, to pure soft wool of fine 
quality. The quality and coarseness of the yarn desired, and the 
characteristics of the cotton used are the determining: factors. In all 




Fig. 66. 

cases the cloth is carefully prepared and so skillfully put upon the roll, 
as to make a perfectly cylindrical surface. Over the cloth is pulled a cot 
of specially prepared smooth calf -skin. The leather fits very closely over 
the cloth, and the two together furnish a cushion surface to the cotton 
when it passes between the rolls. 

The shell roll resembles the solid roll in general appearance when on 
the machine, but is somewhat differently constructed. Instead of having 
the cloth and leather applied directly to the solid cast iron spindle of the 
roll, it is supplied with a cylindrical shell or loose boss. The covering of 
cloth and leather is applied to the shell which slips over the spindle of the 
roll, and is held in place b}^ small springs. When the machine is running, 
the loose boss revolves around the roll spindle. The weights are hung as 
on the solid roll, resting upon the spindle. They are necessaril}^ some- 
what heavier, however, to prevent slipping. This type of roll has become 
very popular, especially as a front roll. Its good features are decreased 
friction, owing to the fact that only the bosses, and not the whole roll 



DRAWING 93 

itself, revolves, and facility for lubrication. Rings or strips of flannel 
are fastened inside the shell to the roller spindle. These carry oil for a 
long time, consequently obviating the necessity of frequent oiling. The 
argument urged against the shell roll is its tendency to slip. This disad- 
vantage has been almost entirely overcome, however. Fig. 67 shows a 
section of the shell roll. The loose boss B fits over the spindle A of the 
roll S and is held in place b}^ the sleeve C, which is slipped over the end 
of the spindle and secured in position by the engagement of a small spring 
with the groove C^. The pieces of flannel for carrying oil are shown nt 
f. The hooks which support the weights hang from the arbors a. 

The metallic roll is made of steel with a fluted boss (see Fig. 65). 
When this type of roll is used, the top and bottom rolls have bosses 
exactl}'' alike. The flutes are deeper than those on the ordinary steel 
bottom rolls, and the pitch of the flutes, owing to the difference in the 
thickness of the strand of cotton, decreases on each succeeding set of rolls 

J3 




^ B ^ 

Fig. G7. 

from the back to the front. The flutes of the top and bottom rolls mesh 
with each other after the fashion of spur gears; too deep contact is 
prevented by the collars shown at s in Fig. 65. Weights are applied to 
the arbors a; they must be only sufficiently heavy to maintain a grip 
between the teeth of each roll. It will therefore be seen that metallic 
rolls are positively driven like gears; no slipping is possible, and crushing 
of the fibre is prevented by having the teeth mesh not too deeply. Their 
introduction has not been universal owing to the existing skepticism in 
regard to their not injuring the fibres. As a matter of fact they are 
actually giving very good results on the stronger fibres. Slippage of leather 
rolls is an influential factor in producing uneven yarn; hence the aim has 
been to secure a type of roll absolutely free from that fault. The expendi- 
ture for re-covering leather rolls, considerable in itself, is entirely done 
away with, and is by no means overbalanced by the additional first cost 
of metallic rolls. 

Since the four sets of rolls do most of the very important work of 



94 COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

drawing, too much care cannot be given to keeping them in proper condi- 
tion. Bottom and top rolls need considerable attention. I^eather top 
rolls in time require re-covering, how often depends upon the roughness 
of their usage, the speed of the machine, the Weight of the strand, and 
the quality of the cotton. To keep them smooth and to preserve their 
life, they are commonly covered with varnish, composed of glue, acetic 
acid, usually a green or red coloring matter, and oil of cloves, or a similar 
ingredient. A leather roll which is not perfectly cylindrical will invariably 
produce uneven sliver. Whenever such unevenness is made on the 
machine, the flutes on the bottom roll are almost always the cause. While 
the machine is running, however, there is little chance for them to damage 
the leather. No two successive pairs of flutes are the same distance apart. 
The difference in pitch of the flutes on a bottom roll is not discernible 
with the naked eye; it nevertheless exists, and effectually prevents the 
flutes from striking the same part of the top roll very often. On the other 
hand, when the machine is standing with heavy weights pressing firmly 
on the top rolls, ridges will be formed wherever the flutes come in contact 
with the leather. To prevent such injur}^ a device partially seen in Fig. 
63 proves useful. Through slots in the hooks W^ extend slats Z. 
Beneath them is a cam M, operated by a handle H^. By turning H^ , M 
may be made to press against the slats Z, which in turn raise the hooks 
W^ and consequently the weights W. The rods X simply pass through 
the holes in the hooks W^. Hence when raised, the hooks W^ slide 
upward away from the sustaining nuts. The pressure of the weights is 
thereby removed from the top rolls. This device should be actuated 
whenever the machine is to be stopped for any length of time. The defects 
to be found in bottom rolls and metallic rolls may usually be remedied b}^ 
periodic scouring. The flutes occasionally become rough, sharp or clogged 
up. At fixed intervals, two or three times a year, all bottom rolls and 
metallic rolls should be removed and scoured with whiting and oil. A 
mixture of these ingredients rubbed lengthwise of the flutes with pieces 
of card clothing does an immense amount of good. Aside from ordinary 
wear and tear the above are the most important points needing attention. 
A drawing frame produces considerable fly, consisting of short fibres 
which the card has failed to remove. To catch these and to prevent their 
re-entering the cotton, top and bottom clearers C"' and C, Fig. 63, are 
provided. C'' is an endless band of flannel stretched over rods held in 
the hinged cover K. C consists of a piece of wood covered on the top 



DRAWIXG 



95 



with flannel, and held in contact with the bottom rolls by small weights 
hung b\^ cords of leather over the front bottom roll. 

To insure the feeding of the full number of slivers to the machine at 
all times, and to prevent excessive loss in time of breakage, stop motions 
are applied. There are two general types of stop motions, the mechanical 
and the electrical, yet the details of the particular ones under each general 
type differ considerably. The mechanical stop motion is usually applied at 
three places, stopping the machine if a sliver break while passing from 
the can to the back rolls, or while passing from the front rolls to the 



^ 



-H 



t' /^ /^ 



T 



T\,MM-'W^::: 



B 



fti 



3= 



o 



Fig. 6S. 



coiler, and when the cans receiving the drawn sliver have been filled. By 
reference to Figs. 63, 68, 69 and 70, one style of mechanical stop motion 
may be explained. The spoon levers, over one of which each sliver 
passes, are unevenly balanced and supported on a knife edge as shown m 
Fig. 63. The tension of the onward moving sliver holds the lever ni the 
position shown in the figure, keeping tlie notched tail-piece away from 
the moving feeler bar F. F is fastened to the shaft O, which is given an 
oscillating motion in a manner easily understood from Fig. 69. To the 
rod O, which carries the feeler, not shown in Fig. 69, is fastened the 
casting S^ pivoted at S- to a forked lever S-. The fork of S- fits about 



96 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



a pin S** on the gear S"^. S^ gets its revolution from the roller gearing. 
As S^ revolves, the fork S'' receives an oscillating motion which is 
communicated to O, the inertia of the feelers and their attachments being 
sufficient to prevent the knuckle joint at S- from bending. The lower 
part of S'^ can be seen to be formed into a finger which rests against the 




Fig. 69. 



projection T^ on the weighted lever T. The upward extending projection 
T- of the weighted lever engages as shown in Fig. 68, with a catch on 
the casting T-\ T'' may slide along on the rod S, being fitted loosely 
therein. It is also penetrated b}^ the shaft O. (The same letters represent 
the same parts in each drawing. ) The casting V is screwed to the shipper 
rod S by the set screws a a and has a forked end fitted around the 



DRAWING 



97 



shaft O. Whenever S moves, V ma}^ move along O. Further along the 
rod S is the belt fork S ^ ^ which is used to move the belt from the fast to 
the loose pulley or vice versa, to stop or start the machine. Suitably 
attached to the slipper rod is the handle H shown in Fig. 63. Contin- 
ually pulling against the casting T'^ is the spiral spring attached at the 
opposite end to a bracket bolted to the machine frame. When the machine 
is running, the parts occupy the position shown in Fig. 68. The belt is 
on the fast pulley, T^ is held in position by the projection T- of the 
weighted lever. The action of this mechanism is as follows : When a 
sliver breaks at the back of the machine, the heavy tail-piece of the spoon 
lever falls into the course of the oscillating feeler bar F. The shape of 




Fig. 70. 



the parts is such that the parts engage one with the other. Thereby the 
backward movement of F is arrested and consequently O is stopped. The 
fork S'^ continues to move, however, and as S^ remains stationary, the 
lever S^ moves around the pivot S-. Consequently the finger which 
forms the lower end of S"^ is pushed forward against T^, as shown in 
dotted lines in Fig 69. T- then releases the catch on T"^ The spiral 
spring exerts its pull on T", which, as it moves to the right (Fig. 68), 
presses against V and moves the shipper rod S, transferring the belt 
from the fast to the loose pulley ; when the parts would occupy the 
positions shown in dotted lines. When the machine is again started, 
the movement of V slides T^ along far enough to engage it with T^. 
The machine may of course be stopped or started without disturbing 



98 



COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 



T^, when T^ is in the position shown by the full lines in Fig. 68. The 
front stop motion for a breakage between the front roll and coiler is actu- 
ated by the trumpet K, Fig. 63. K may be seen to be loosely pivoted at 
Q on which is also pivoted the plate E^ and the weighted lever I^. When a 
sliver is passing through the trumpet hole in E, the tension presses the 
head of the screw in E down against the plate E^. E^ rests against E^, 
which is a part of the weighted lever L fulcrumed at Q. The weighted 
end of L is thereby raised. When a sliver breaks at the front, the tension 
is destroyed, and the weight w'^ causes the tail of E to fall. The tail- 
piece of L then comes in contact with another feeler bar attached to the 




Fig. 72. 



oscillating shaft O, shown in the detached drawing Fig. 70, O's motion is 
arrested, and the machine stopped as before. When the cams at the front 
are full of sliver, the coiler plate R is raised by the upper pressure of the 
cotton beneath it. As it rises it raises E, removing the pressure from 
E. The end of L then falls with the result noted above. 

By reference to Figs. 63, 71 and 72, the driving mechanism of the 
drawing frame may be seen. The main shaft is near the floor, and 
extends lengthwise of the machine; when three heads are arranged zig-zag, 
one main shaft may serve to drive them all. On the spindle of the front 
roll is a fast pulley C and a loose pulley B. A narrow belt connects with 
the pulley A on the main shaft. The back roll receives its power from a 



DRAWING 



99 



train of gears starting with a small pinion on the front roll. The change 
gear for draft is indicated, and will be seen to drive the back roll. A 
larger gear therefore increases the speed of the back roll, consequently- 
decreasing the draft. This will be recalled to be the identical effect 




Msin 



Shaft 



60-^ 



ini 



33 



A 



loS— 



12 



Fig. 71. 



produced in changing the draft gear on a card. The next to the back and 
the next to the front rolls are driven from the back and front, respectively, 
as shown. The calender rolls and the coiler receive their power from the 
front roll. 



LofC. 



lOO COTTON YARN MANUFACTURE 

CALCULATIONS 

I. Cai,cui.ations Relating to Draft. 

A. Total draft is found in the manner previously described. 
Example: — Gears used are taken from Fig. 7 1 . The draft change 

gear is assumed to have 47 teeth. 

60 X 100 X24X'^SX2X8 ^ .-.r 

~ — — 5.67 total draft. 

47 X 24 X 45 X 24 X II 

B. Intermediate Drafts. 

I. Draft between back rolls and second set. 

Exajnple: — 

26 X 23 X 9 X 8 



28 X 20 X 8 X II 



1-25 



1.64 



2. Draft between second and third sets. 
Example: — 

29 X 28 X 60 X 100 X20X28XIIX 8 

33 X 26 X 47 X 24 X 37 X 32 X 8 XII 

3. Draft between third set and front rolls. 

\ Example: — 

^ ^2 X ^7x11x8 

28 x 20 X 8 x 9 

4. Draft between front rolls and calender rolls. 
Example: — 

24 X '^'i X 2 X 8 

— ^^ 1.07 

45 X 24 X II 

5. Product of intermediate drafts. 

1.25 X 1.64 X 2.58 X 1.07 5.66 total draft. 

C. Draft Constant. 

1. Rule for draft constant previously given applies here. 

Example: — 

60x100x24x33x2x8 ,^,^ 1 r . . 

^^ 266.667 draft constant. 

24 X 45 x 24 X II 

2. Draft gear = Draft Constant 

Draft. 



DRAWING 10 I 

D. Weights per y ard i?i their relations to draft. 

1. Weight per yard of one sliver fed to the machine equals weight 
per yard of sliver delivered times draft, divided by the number of ends 
fed to a delivery. 

2. Weight per yard of sliver delivered equals weight per yard of one 
sliver fed times number fed, divided by draft. 

3. Draft equals weight per yard of sliver fed times number fed, 
divided by weight per yard of sliver delivered. 

II. CA1.CU1.AT10NS Relating to Production. 

A. Theoretical Production. 

Production is found just as on a card. It has become quite customary 
to compute the production from the surface speed of the front rolls. Since 
there is some draft between the front rolls and the calender rolls, a result 
obtained by this method is of course too small. But because a deduction 
for waste and stoppages must be made anyway, it is perhaps sufficiently 
accurate to calculate the production from the front rolls. The true 
theoretical production must be computed from the surface speed of the 
calender rolls, and is so computed here. 

Let d = diameter of calender roll. 
" s = speed of calender roll. 
" w = weight per yard of sliver delivered. 

Then production per delivery in pounds per 10 hours = 

s X d X 3.1416 X 60 X 10 X w 
36 X 7000 

= s X d X w X .00748 

B. Actual Production. 

The actual production is somewhat less than the theoretical owing to 
the necessary stoppages for oiling, cleaning, breakage of ends, etc. An 
allowance to cover all stoppages as well as loss by wasteshould be made. 
About 15 per cent, deduction from the theoretical production will give 
approximately correct results. Much of course depends upon the efficiency 
of the tenders, so that 20 per cent, deduction is often more nearly right. 
Generally speaking, we may say that one delivery of a drawing frame may 
be supplied by one card; yet conditions such as relative weights of slivers 
produced, and the speeds of the two machines have their effect. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

1. Section of Piatt Bros.' Roller Gin 6 

2. Section of Saw Gin 7 

3. Types of Cotton Bales 10 

4. Section of Bale Breaker 12 

5. Mixing Lattices Connected with Bale Breaker 13 

6. Kitson Opener , 14 

7. Section of Kitson Opener 15 

8. Two-armed and Three-armed Beaters 16 

9. Pettee Beater for Openers 16 

10. Combination Opener and Breaker Lapper 18 

11. Section of a Lapper Through Dust Cages 19 

12. Section of Picker Room with all Machines on One Floor 17 

13. Section of Picker Rooms where Two Floors are Used . , 20 

14. Dust Trunk ] 

15. " " [ 21 

16. " " J 

17. " " (section) 22 

18. Kitson Breaker Lapper 23 

19. Section of Kitson Breaker Lapper 24 

20. Side View of Pettee Lap-Forming Device 25 

21. Section Through Gearing 25 

22. Intermediate Lapper , 26 

23. Pettee Bvener 27 

24. Atherton Evener 29 

25. Kitson Evener, Showing Drums, etc. 30 

26. Section of Kitson Evener 30 

27. Section of Intermediate Lapper * 31 

28. Carding Beater 34 

29. Plan of Lapper Gearing 42- 

29a. Stop-motion Gearing 47 

30. Dobson and Barlow Roller Card 50 

31. Whitin Stationary Flat Card 51 

32. Side Elevation Pettee Card 52 

33. Section of Pettee Card 53 

34. Section of Licker-in and Contiguous Parts 54 

35. Licker-in Screen 55 



Bend made by American Machine Co 71, 72 



FIG. PAGR 

36. Flat and Cylinder 57 

37. Section Through Cylinder Licker-in and Undercasings 59 

38. Top View of Card 60 

39. Section of Trumpet 60 

40. Section of Coiler 61 

41. Setting Gauge 62 

42. Adjustable Parts of Feed Mechanism 63 

43. 1 

44. y Typical Feed Plates 64 

45. ] 

46. Setting Arrangements for Licker-in 66 

47. Setting Arrangements for Licker-in Screen 67 

48. Adjustment for Bottom of Cylinder Screen 67 

49. Section Through Cylinder and Doffer 58 

50. Gauge for Setting Flats to Cylinder . 69 

51. Section of Lowell Machine Shops' Bend 70 

52. 

53. 

54. Means of Adjustment for Cylinder Pedestal 73 

55. Front Knife Plates 74 

56. Detailed View of Same 75 

57. Plan of Gearing 76 

58. 

59- 

60. Stripping Box 83 

61. Card Ready for Grinding 85 

62. Pettee Drawing Frame 86 

63. Section of Pettee Drawing Frame 90 

64. Drawing Rolls (top rolls leather covered) 91 

65. Drawing Rolls (top rolls metallic) 91 

66. Joint of Bottom Rolls 92 

67. Section of Shell Roll 93 

68. Plan of Stop Motion ... 95 

69. Side View of Stop Motion 96 

70. Feeler Bars of Stop Motion . .' 97 

71. Drawing Frame Gearing 99 

72. Roller Gearing 98 



Flat Driving Mechanism 77 




SEP 37 W2 



COPY DEL. rOCAT.OIV. 
SEP. 27 1902 

1902 



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